5'j 



Woolen and Worsted 
Spinning 



A Complete Working Guide to 

MODERN PRACTICE IN THE 'MANUFACTURE OF WOOLEN AND WORSTED 
YARNS AND FELT, INCLUDING THE SOURCES, NATURAL PROPER- 
TIES, GRADING, AND CLEANSING OF THE RAW 
MATERIAL, AND THE MACHINERY AND 
PROCESSES OF FACTORY WORK 



By MILES COLLINS 

Superintendent, Abbott Worsted Company 
Graniteville, Mass. 



ILLUSTRATED 



CHICAGO 
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE 

^\ 1909 



6, v' 



LIBRARY Of CONGRESS 
Two CoDies Received 

MAK 22 ia09 

^ CopvriKnt Entry 
^CLASS CU XXc, No, 
COPY 5.^ j 



Copyright 1908 by 
American Schooi, of Correspondence 



Entered at Stationers' Hall, lyondon 
All Rierhts Reserved 



?0^f 




Fore^vord 



^HE Textile Industry has shared to such an extent the 
modern tendency toward speciahzation, and has been 
:r-i marked by the development of such a multiplicity of 
types of machinery and special mechanical and chem- 
ical processes, that its various branches to-day consti- 
tute in reality distinct though closely related arts. It is the 
purpose of the present volume to furnish not only a comprehen- 
sive reference work on the fundamental branch of Woolen and 
Worsted Spinning, but a working guide to all details of modern 
practice in the manufacture of woolen and worsted yarns, em- 
bodying the latest approved methods as developed in the best 
American mills and based on a careful study of the best modern 
types of textile machinery. 

C This volume is especially adapted for purposes of self -in- 
struction and home study. In its preparation, special stress has 
been laid on the practical as distinguished from the merely 
theoretical or descriptive form of treatment of each topic ; and 
the utmost care has been used to create a work perfectly 
adapted not only to meet the requirements of a manual of prac- 
tical instruction for the beginner in textile art, but also to serve 
as a reference work replete with information and suggestions 
of great practical value to the most advanced and experienced 
textile worker. 



€L The method adopted in the preparation of this volume is 
that which the American School of Correspondence has devel- 
oped and employed so successfully for many years. It is not an 
experiment, but has stood the severest of all tests — that of 
practical use— which has demonstrated it to be the best method 
yet devised for the education of the busy workingman. 

C For purposes of ready reference, and timely information 
when needed, it is believed that this volume will be found to 
meet every requirement. 




Table of Contents 



Grading and Sorting of Wool . . < Page *11 

Wool- and Hair-Producing Animals (Slieep, Goats, Camels) — World's Wool 
Supply — British Wools — Long-Wooled and Short- Wooled Sheep — Saxony 
Wool — Australian Wools — Domestic Wools of the United States (Fleeces, 
Bright Wools, Territory Wools) — South American Wools — Irish, Canadian, 
and French Wools — Spanish Merino — Levantine Carpet Wools — .Angora Wool 
— Mohair — Cashmere or Thibet Goat — Alpaca — Structure of Wool and Hair 
Fiber — First and Second Clips — Fleece and Wether Wools — Skin Wool — Wool 
and Fur — Wool Substitutes — Wool Wastes (Noil, Ring Waste, Yai'n Waste, 
Hardends, Flocks, Shoddy, Mungo, Extract) — Carbonization — Wool Sorting 

Cleansing and Preparing Processes Page 41 

Arrangement of Dusting, Scouring, Carbonizing, and Drying Machinery — 
Automatic Feeds (High and LcTvv) — Cone and Square Dusters — Parallel Rake 
Motion Wool Washer — Flume or Rakeless Washer — Carbonizing Duster — • 
Wool Degreasing — Wool Scouring — Composition of Wool — Soap and Water 
Tests — Hydro-Extractor — One-Apron Dryer — Multiple-Apron Dryer — Shrink- 
age — Teasing — Burr Picking — Oiling — Rotary Brush Oiling Machine — Mixing 
— Worsted Carding — Requirements of Good Carding — Theory of Carding — 
Card Clothing — Speeds of a Fine Worsted Card — Mechanical Details of 
AVorsted Card — Speeds of Woolen Card — Setting a Card — Heating — DoflSng — 
Grinding — Automatic Feeding — Burring — Woolen Carding — First Breaker 
Card (Feed and Wipe Rolls, Burr and Cylinder Guards, Tumbler, Main Cyl- 
inder, Doffer Comb, Torrance Balling Machine and Creel) — Second Breaker 
Card — Finisher Card — Condensers — Apperly Feed — Stripping the Cards — 
Grinding — Imperfect Roving — Preparing Process — Gill Boxes — Drafts — Gill 
Box Calculations — Backwashing — Drying — Oiling — Combing — Nip Comb — 
Carrying Comb — Noble Comb — Balling Machine — Dabbing Brushes — Con- 
ductors — Drawing-Off Rolls — Circle Cleaning — Can Coiler — Finishing Gilling 
— Balling Head — Measuring — Top Testing — Testing for Water — Worsted 
Drawing — Set of Drawing — Open Drawing — Medium and Coarse Wools — Can 
Gill Boxes^Cone Drawing — French Drawing — Rubbing Motion — Single and 
Double Meche Bobbins 



Worsted Spinning . . . . . ' Page 233 

Flyer Spinning Frame — Carrier Rolls — Twisting and Winding — Take-TJp — 
Cap Spinning Frame — Ring Spinning Frame — Bobbins, Rings, and Travelers 

Woolen Spinning Page 255 

Mule — Head Stock — Carriage — Fallers — Squaring Bands — Accelerated Speed — 
Easing-Up Motion — Backing Off — Drawing In — Quadrant — Counter Faller — 
Building Device — Builder Rail — Twist Slide — Latch Rod — DofiBng — Twisting 
— Two- and Four-Ply Twisters — Data for Two- to Six-Ply Yams — Data for 
Worsted Coating Yarns — Manufacture of Felt (Stock, Mixing, Carding, 
Hardening, Soaping, Fulling, Washing, Drying) — Punched or Needle Felt 

Index Page 317 



*For page numbers, see foot of pages. 



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WOOLEN AND WORSTED 

SPINNING. 

PART I. 



WOOL AND HAIR PRODUCLNO ANIMALS. 

To have a comprehensive knowledge of the woolen and 
worsted industries, and to understand the nature of wool, hair and 
other fibres used in the manufacture of fabrics or woolens, 
and to be acquainted with the various processes and operations, 
and the principles that underlie them, it is necessary to know 
something- cf the animals from which wool and hair are obtained. 
One should also have a knowledge of the different climates and 
countries where certain species of sheep, goats and camels are 
found. 

The sheep is a ruminant mammal, domesticated in a great 
many varieties, and one of the animals most usetul in this respect. 
The male is the ram, the female the ewe, and the young the lamb. 
The chief countries from which comes wool are England, Aus- 
tralia, the United States and Territories, New Zealand, Germany, 
France, Spain, Cape of Good Hope, Canada, Austria, La Plata, 
East Indies, Van Dieman's Land, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Den- 
mark, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy. 

If sheep are allowed to ramble at will on moors and moun- 
tains, without any care, coarse fibres or hairs appear among the 
wool. of the fleece. This occurrence in the fleece of the domestic 
sheep is rare ; for when the sheep is domesticated the rank or 
coarse hair gradually- disappears, and the soft wool around the 
roots, which is hardly visible in the wild animal, becomes singu- 
larly developed. When these strong hairs are seen in domesti- 
cated sheep it is always regarded as a defect in sheep farming. 

The Mouflon is a probable ancestor of some at least of the 
domestic sheep, probably those with short tail and crescentic 
horns. The Mouflon is a species inhabiting the mountains of 
Southern Europe, as in Greece, Sarclinia, Corsica, Barbary, and 
also Asia Minor. The fleece is very short and coarse, more like 



11 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



hair than wool ; but the most singular and striking characteristic 
is the very long hairs with which the anterior parts of its body and 
legs are covered. Hairs from six to seven inches long spiing from 
the three lower quarters of the foreleg as far as the shank on the 
anterior, posterior and external sides, and hang down nearly to the 
ground. On the throat there is a band of hairs varying from six 
to thirteen inches in length. These features form a very remark- 
able kind of ornamental appendage. 

Divisions. Sheep are commonly divided into the long and 
short wooled varieties. Some have been described as middle- 
wooled sheep. This character of length of staple is accompanied 
by traits which are worthy of attention : thus the lon[j-wooled 




Fig. 1. Cotswold Sheep. 

varieties are usually heavy in the carcass, long and heavy in their 
fleeces, white on the head and legs. Short-wooled sheep, on the 
other hand, are smaller and lighter in body, yielding a short, fine 
wool, and are brown or even black on the face and legs. 

British Wools. The principal long-wooled breeds of this 
class are the Cotswold, Lincolns, Romney Marsh, Leicesters and 
Hamptons. 



13 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



The sliort-wooled sheep are well represented by the Sussex 
and Hampshire Downs, the Shropshires, Dorsets and Exmoors. 

The Cheviot sheep may be mentioned as a middle-wooled 
animal. 

Long-wooled Sheep. The Cotswold. The head is sur- 
mounted by a tuft or long lock of wool hanging over the eyes, the 
fleece is heavy, thickly set and characterized by a rather bold and 
large curl. The fleece under ordinary circumstances will weigh 
from eight to ten pounds, but in some cases double this weight is 
not uncommon in good flocks. 




Fig. 2. Lincoln Ewe. 

Lincoln Sheep. These are considered the largest and heaviest 
fleeced sheep. The staple of Lincoln sheep fleece is long. The 
particulars of three fleeces, not unusually large, will be interesting. 
By measurement the staple of each fleece was 201 inches long; 
each individual fibre was strong, and the strength maintained 
throughout the entire length. These fleeces weighed respectively 
181 pounds, 20 pounds and 20i pounds. The Lincoln in many 
respects resembles the Cotswold sheep, but has a less prominent 



13 



6 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 

tuft on the forehead. The wool has a peculiar glistening appear- 
ance, which has earned for it the name of lustre wool. 

Tlie Rovmey Marsh form another distinct breed. They are 
a heavj-carcassed, long-wooled, hornless, white-faced breed. 

Leicester Sheep are known also as the Dishley breed. The 
Leicester is smaller in. size than the three previously named ; the 
wool is shorter and less abundant, and the topknot is either want- 
ing or very scant. This breed of sheep has extended all over the 
world. 

Hampton Sheep. The Hampton breed is generally spoken of 
as a long-wooled, white-faced and hornless breed. 

5hort-wooled Sheep. Foremost among the short-wooled 
sheep may be mentioned the Southdown or Sussexdown, native to 
the chalk range which extends to the east and west of Brighton, 
England. The Sussexdown sheep is of a very symmetrical 
appearance, and tlie beauty of its form is the more apparent on 
account of the shortness of its fleece. The face and feet are fawn- 
colored, the crown is well covered with close wool, which comes 
well forward upon the cheek. The fleece is short and firm as a 
board, showing cracks down to the skin, where it refuses to bend. 

Hampshire Downs are a larger, coarser looking, slightly 
longer wooled race of slieep, darker faces and legs. 

The Shropshire Breed. The general character and symmetry 
of this sheep is not as uniform as the two last named breeds. The 
face is almost black, with a firm helmet of wool extending un- 
broken between the ears on the forehead ; few gray hairs are in 
the wool, and should they appear, will be found near the tail. 
Shropshire sheep are bred in nearly all parts of the ^\orld. 

The Oxford Down has many points in common with the 
Shropshire breed. The chief point of difference is the Roman 
nose and the topknot, which is composed of a long lock of wool. 

The Dorset is white-faced, horned, and has very short wool. 

The Cheviot breed is distinct from the common mountam or 
black-faced breed. The wool is good, though inferior to that of 
the Southdown, and far surpasses that of the black-faced momitain 
breed. As the Cheviot race is equally hardy and is capable of 
sustaining cold, it will not be long before the Cheviot supersedes 
the mountain sheep of the Cheviot range of hills. 



14 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



Saxony Wool grown in Germany is the finest in the world. 
The fibre is fine and rich, and the great number of serrations make 
it a good felting wool. The very finest of fabrics are made 
from it. 

The Australian Wools are of very fine quality and are gen- 
erally classed under three heads : Port Philip, Sydney and Adelaide. 
The first mentioned is the best, Sydney coming next and Adelaide 
being inferior to the other two. 




Fig. 8. Ramboullet Ewe. 

The Domestic Wools of the United States consist of practi- 
cally three divisions : 

First. — Fleeces, often spoken of as Washed Fleeces. This 
wool comes from Ohio, Pennsylvania and Michigan; It is about 
equal in fineiiess and fulling quality to Australian wool. 

Second. — Bright Wools. These are coarser in quality and 
have more lustre. The states which produce them are Missouri, 
Indiana, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont and Kentucky. They 



15 



8 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 

are largely used for serges and worsted dress goods. The quality 
is commonly spoken of as being quarter blood or three-eighths 
blood, meaning tliat the animal from which the fleece is sheared is 
supposed to contain one-fourth or three-eighths Merino blood by 
interbreeding. 

Tliird. — Territory Wools are about the same in quality as 
fleeces, and are grown in Idaho, Montana, Arizona, Utah, and one 
or two other western states. The per cent of shrinkage in these 
is very great, owing to the particles of soil, etc., clinging to the 
fleece. It is not uncommon for 100 pounds of "grease" wool to 
weigh after scouring only 25 or 30 pomids. 

Lake and Georgia is another smaller grade of domestic wool 
grown in Georgia and Louisiana ; in quality about equal to 
Bright wools. 

5outh American Wools range from very fine to car^Det wool. 

Montevideo is fine stock, resembling in this respect Australian. 

Crossbreds come next, running from a three-eighth stock suit- 
able for a worsted serge to braid wool. 

Braid is a little finer than" carpet wool. 

Cordova is the coarsest South American wool wliich finds its 
way into the United States, and is used by worsted spinners for 
carpet yarns. It contains about fifteen per cent of three-eighth 
quality wool. 

Alpaca is also a South American wool, but as it is very simi- 
lar to hair, it is generally classified with mohair. (See page 12.) 

Irish and Canadian are lustre wools of medium quality and 
length, and are generally used for worsted yarns. 

French Sheep. There are three great central and western 
breeds of sheep in France : the Choletaise, having a dark circle 
around the eyes, a better form than most of the other French 
species, and having a good fleece; the Berrichome du Crevan, 
which yields much milk and wool ; and the Larzac, a short, thick- 
set animal, with long fibres, but not very abundant wool. 

La Chamois. The fine, silky wool of the pure Manchamp 
breed, is remarkable for its qualities as a combing wool. This is 
owing to the strength as Avell as the length and fineness of the 
fibre. 

Spanish Merino. The breed for which Spain was formerly 



16 



WOOLEN" AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



9 



celebrated originated in the export of English sheep in exchange 
for Spanish horses, and their subsequent cross with a native breed. 
This noted breed may be distinguished from the British sheep by 
the covering of wool over the forehead and cheeks. The horns 
are large and ponderous and convoluted laterally. The wool is 
long, soft, and twisted into silky looking spiral ringlets. The 
word Merino signifies an overseer of slieep and pasture lands. 

Some of the descendants of the Merinos were carried into 
Germany at the beginning of the present century, and this gave 
rise to the fine Saxony wools for which Germany is celebrated. 
This well-known breed is now reared in Australia, and holds the 




Fig. 4. Americau Merino Ram. 

first place as to quality, strength, etc. Australia occupies the 
first rank as a wool-producing country. 

Levantine Carpet Wools. The following wools are for card- 
ing, and are made into filling for carpets. They are generally 
washed wools. 

Ohina Fillings. The best China filling wools are grown in 
the northern part of that country. These wools are coarse, short, 



IT 



10 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 

and contain kemp or dead fibers. The different grades are spoken 
of as No. 1 Open, No. 2 Open, and Cliina Ball. 

Skin Wools come from Servia, Turkey, and the country 
around Salonica. 

Khorrassan Autiaims and Trans Caspians are chiefly used for 
felt, but as they are also used for carpet filling they are mentioned 
here. 

The Gomhing Wools from the East for carpet warp yarn are as 
follows : 

Washed Syrian is grown in three grades : first, Washed 
Aleppo, a white wool ; second, Washed Awassi, also white ; third. 
Washed Karradi, white fawn or mixed with dark fibers. These 
are long, strong, deep-grown wools, and spin to about 14^ worsted. 

Angora Wool from Angora comes chiefly in the unwashed 
state, and spins to about 16^. 

Scotch carpet, which really comes under the head of British 
wools, is a deep-grown, deep-bottom wool. It runs to a hairy top, 
or is coarser at the end of the fibers than near the animal. The 
noil would be quite valuable on account of its fineness if it did not 
contain dark fibers. Tliis wool generally spins to 14® or 16®. 

Donskoi comes from the southern part of Russia, generally 
in the washed state, so that the shrinkage is not more than ten or 
twelve per cent. It is veiy white, coarse at the top, and has a cotted 
root. A small part of this clip is adapted to luster purposes, and 
is sometimes mixed with mohair. 

China carpet is kempy, but of good length, spinning to 16®. 
The greater part is a carding wool. 

White Bokhara and White Turkistans, although used some- 
times for combing, are generally made into felt for felt boots. 
They are not really white, but are mixed with dark fibers. 

Tlie noil from these combing wools mixed with white goat 
hair (from England, Germany and France), white cattle hair, and 
the lower grades of worsted card waste, is manufactured into 
carpet filling. 

The Groat. Opinions of naturalists have been divided respect- 
ing the original stock of the domestic goat, but it is generally 
accepted to be a descendant of the Ibex. 

Mohair is produced by the Angora goat. Tliis animal inhabits 



l§ 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



11 



the tract of land which surrounds Angora, in Asiatic Turkey, 
where the goatherds bestow much care on their flocks, frequently 
combing and washing them. In color it is milk white, the legs are 
short, horns twisted and spreadmg. The hair on the whole body is 
disposed in long, pendulous, spiral ringlets. The fibre composing 
the fleece, which is called Mohair, has a bright, shining, metallic 
luster. 

Cashmere Croat or Thibet Croat. Cashmere is the name of a 
country and city in India. The animal of this name will not 
admit of a particular description- It is subject to many varieties, 
differing both in color and in quality of hair of which the fleece is 




Fig. 5. Angora Goat.^ 



composed. The principal points in the most approved breeds are 
large ears, limbs slender and clearly formed, horns not spirally 
twisted, and above all, the long and silk}^ fleece. 

The Alpaca is of the Llama tribe, and is found only in the 
mountain regions of the southern part of Peru. The wool of 
the Alpaca closely resembles Mohair, and is of various shades 
of color, black, white, gray and brown. It is pre-eminently dis- 
tinguishable for its brightness and lustre, its extreme softness and 
great length of staple. 



12 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 




Fig. 6. 

No. 1, Mohair. No. 2, Mohair Noil. No. 3, Alpaca. No. 4, Canadian 
Washed Fleece. No. 5, Fine Scoured Territory. No. 6, Same in grease 
state. 





No. 7, China Camel's-hair. No. 8, Russian Camel's-hair. No. 9, Kussiao 
Camel's-hair Noil. 



30 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



13 



The Gruanaco is found in South America. The general color 
is rich brown, the head and ears being gray. 

CameVs-hair is giown mainly in two countries, China and 
Russia. 

China earner s-hair is the better grade, being finer and lighter 
in color. 

Russian cameV s-hair is dark and coarse in comparison to the 
former. These stocks are often sorted into two qualities in the 
mills, the finest quahty growing close to the animal's body, while 
the longer and coarser hair projects beyond. Camers-hair is 




Fig. 7. Young Angora Billies, grown by W. J. Hughes, Kendall Co., Texas. 

generally spun into worsted yarns, the comb-waste or noil being 
used in the manufacture of woolen dress goods. Much of the 
long stock is manufactured into press-cloths, used for extracting 
oil from cotton seed. 

WOOL AND HAIR FIBER. 

Textile fibers or materials may be arranged in three classes. 
Animal, Vegetable and Mineral. Each of these classes of fibers 
possess certain properties, which have their influence on the fabric. 
Quality, softness, elasticity, strength and lustre are important 
factors in the manufacture of textile fabrics. Although unneces- 
sary to enter into all the details concerning the different sorts 
and varieties of wool, a clear idea of what is generally understood 



31 



14 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



by the terms Clothing and Combing Wools, or short and long 
wools, must be obtained. 

Wool and hair are two very different fibres. Wool is softer 
than hair ; it is wavy and curly, and more flexible and elastic. 
Hair is generally stiff and straight. 

There are several animals whose fleeces contain wool and 
hair. Among these may be classed the Thibet goat, of Cashmere, 
the Llama and the Vicugna. When the fibres of the Camel and 
Angora goat are considered, the resemblance to wool is more pro- 
nounced, but the level, stem-like appearance is manifest. The 
smooth, flat surface of hair is also very perceptible. With wool, 
on the contraiy, the surface of a fibre is rough and serrated. 
When examined under a microscope the surface appears like the 
edge of a saw, or as the tiles of a roof overlapping each other at 
the edges. (See Fig. 8.) 

Wool may be described as a cylinder, whose surface is covered 

with scales, notches, seriT.- 
tions or imbrications of 
irregular sizes overlapping 
each other, and tapering 
from the root to the tip of 
the fiber. It does not ofro w 
independentljs as hair, but 
ill locks. A lock of wool 
is a number of fibres which 
grow in one mass ; this is 
said to be due to the curly 
nature of the fiber. When such a lock is drawn between the 
thumb and finger-tips to the root, those imbrications, or sawlike 
teeth, are more or less perceptible to the sensitive touch of an 
experienced and skillful wool sorter. 

In the manufacture of woolen cloth, the wool that has the 
most serrations is considered the most valuable. It is by virtue 
of this characteristic that the matting or felting property is given 
to the wool, and these serrations or scales should therefore be pre- 
served in all the after-processes of manufacture. 

The purpose of carding wool for a woolen thread is to inter- 
mix the fibres in all possible ways. The fibres of a woolen thread 




5. 



3. 

Fig. 8. 

No. 1, Medium grade wool fiber. No. 2, 
Camel's-hair. No. 3, Kemp, or diseased 
fiber. No. 4, Merino. No. 5, Mohair. 



83 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 15 

are not laid parallel to each other, bat are crossed and intermixed, 
so that the thread resembles the hairy body of a caterpillar more 
than anything else. The points of the scales projecting out all 
over the body of the thread, and the fibres interlocking each other 
in one entangled mass, hold firmly and closely together. 

There is another quality in these minute scales which is not 
generally noticed : the under side of each scale is rough ; this 
roughness offers resistance to the interlocking of the scales or 
serrations. The consequent results which are obtained by reason 
of this property are valuable. By adding a lubricating fluid like 
soap and water, the fulling, milling and felting process is accom- 
plished by means of great pressure upon the fabric, and the friction 
caused by the cloth passing through the rollers or under the 
weiglit of heavy hammers, generates heat, so that felting takes 
place. The structure of the fibre, moisture, friction, pressure and 
heat play important parts in this. 

Wool fibre is covered with an endless number of dried-up 
cells, which are composed of a soft, gelatinous membrane, so that 
when moisture and heat are applied, these cells become soft. 
When pressure is brought to bear upon them, the fibres are liter- 
ally pressed into each other, the downy, fur-like teeth and scales 
hook into the serrations of other fibres whenever forced into con- 
tact, and become inextricably interlocked. This causes the fibres 
to decrease in length and increase in thickness and bulk, there- 
fore getting heavier in proportion to their length. This fact must 
always be borne in mind when analyzing samples of woolen 
cloth. 

This interlocking, or felting, is determined by the quality of 
wool and the number or fineness of the serrations in the fibre. 
If there are no such serrations, there will be little fulling 
properties. 

Wool possesses another peculiarity : it is longitudinally waved. 
This waviness of the fibre has much to do with its felting nature, 
and assists in interlocking and squeezing the serrations of one fibre 
into those of another, as one would interlock the fingers when clasp- 
ing hands. So remarkable is this property that with many kinds 
of wool it is only necessary to mingle the fibres, wet them and beat 
gently, to get them to combine and form a fabric. 



23 



16 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 

The fibres of Merino, Saxony or fine Australian wools 
measure from .012 to .018 of a millimeter in diameter; these 
wools average .013 millimeters, or equal to 1,954 fibres to an 
inch, if laid side by side. 

The average Saxony fleece weighs 1^ pounds scoured. 
Saxony wool may be accepted as one of the finest, softest and 
best wools grown. In a single fibre of Saxony wool there are 
from 2,700 to 2,800 serrations in one inch, therefore this wool has 
superior milling and felting properties. 

The fibre of Merino fleece has in one inch 2,400 serrations, 
and is another exceptionally good feiting wool. Southdown wool 
has 2,080 serrations to the inch, while Leicester wool has only 
1,860. The latter wool has somewhat inferior felting properties, 
for in general it may be said that the most valuable wool possesses 
the greatest number of serrations in a given space, and that it is 
in such wools that the felting properties are highest. This is in 
general true, but there are some exceptions. For instance. Cape 
wool, although having fine curly fibres in the fleece and a large 
number of imbrications, is not classed as a first-class felting wool. 
If examined under a microscope, it apparently possesses all the 
outward characteristics of an excellent fulling wool ; but in prac- 
tice it is only of a secondary character. Buenos Ayres and Port 
Philip wools, when compared as to their mechanical structure, are 
very similar ; both have a fibre fully imbricated, but their fulling 
or felting powers are as opposite as it is possible for the fleeces 
of the same genns of animals to be. Port Philip is considered 
one of the very best felting wools, while the inferiority of Buenos 
Ayres is universally acknowledged. 

These delicate fur-like imbrications, and also the fact that the 
central portion of the fibre is a narrow and irregular canal, are the 
true foundations of wool being one of the easiest fibres to dye, 
these peculiarities making it one of the best absorbents of color. 
It is to preserve these infinitesimal serrations that oil is applied 
to wool before undergoing the carding process. These serrations 
should of course be preserved in all after-processes, because, as 
already stated, in the finishing department the felting process, 
"which is the very strength of a fabric," is accomplished by means 
of these imbrications. 



24 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 17 

111 practice the wool sorter and manufacturer judge wool by- 
its softness, whiteness, or color, curl and waviness, elasticity of 
staple and length, and a disposition to felt. It is needless to state 
that such a delicate structure should be handled with extreme 
care and skill. 

Softness varies greatly, according to the quality and descrip- 
tion of wool, but whatever the breed or kind, it must possess a soft 
and warm feel. 

All wools are not white, for some sheep have a mixture of 
white and black. Then the climate and soil have their effect 
upon the wool, giving fibers of black, brown-gray and red-brown. 
These colors are found mostly in Egyptian, East Indian and 
Spanish sheep. These wools are generally used in their natural 
shades, or dyed into darker colors, either in piece-dyed goods or 
in the wool for mixtures. 

White wools used in the manufacture of fine flannels and 
opera cloaking are sometimes bleached to make them still whiter, 
therefore a pure white wool is most valuable. 

The quality of wool depends to some extent upon the curl 
and waviness ; as a rule the coarser fibres have less crimps or waves 
than the finer wools, yet it is not always wise to take this as an 
absolute guide. The wavy or crimpy nature of wool has much to 
do with the elasticity of the fibre. As an example of the meaiimg 
of elasticity, take a handful of raw cotton and compress it firmly. 
The cotton will not resist the pressure and will retain its position 
for sometime afterwards, but wool after pressure will return to its 
foimer shape. It has a soft, full and lofty handle during the 
pressure, and when the wool is released it flies back as though it 
were a "sponge. The length of the staple is of great importance. 
By staple is meant a group or lock of fibres. These will vary from 
any definable length to twenty inches long ; the long wools are 
usually coarser and stronger than short wools, but all long wools 
are not necessarily coarse, nor all short wools fine. 

Kempy wool. This is dead hair found in the fleece of sheep 
that have not had proper care and attention. Kemps, as these 
dead fibres are called, in White Highland sheep are about two 
inches in length, while in finer bred sheep they are short. Kemp 
is a white, shining hair, which will not take a dye of the same 



25 



la 



WOOLEN AKD WORSTED SPINNING. 




Fig. 9. 

No. 1, Quarter blood top from South American crossbreds. No. 2, 
Quarter blood noil from same. No, 3, Hardends from quarter blood stock. 
No. 4, Garnetted stock from Australian threads. No. 5, Lap waste. No. 
6, Carbonized card waste. 



26 




o 


iS; 


o 


v< 


^ 


<p 


OS 


;i 


o 


w 


b 


09 




4) 

a 


c/} 


t-3 


t) 


03 


Q 




H 




Z 




O 




u 





WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 19 

shade as the other fibers. They never change in the process of 
carding and spinning and will not unite with the other wool fibres, 
but lie on the surface, held down by other fibres. 

First clip. The finest and shortest woo^.s are generally lambs' 
wool. The animal is at this time from six months to one year old 
and is called a hog or hogget. 

Second clips are stronger and longer. Wool of the second 
clip is from yearlings, while the subsequent growths are designated 
fleece wools and wether wools. 

Wools that will spin to extra fine counts are Silesian, Saxony, 
Port Philip and Sydney. 

Wool that is obtamed by the pulling process from sheep that 
are slaughtered for food, is called skin wool, pulled avooI, or some- 
times dead wool. 

Difference between Wool and Fur. Wool, fur and hair are 
all the coverings of different mammiferous animals. The term 
wool is applied only to that fibre which grows on sheep similarly 
to the hair or fur on other animals, but the wool fibre is distin- 
guished by its scale-like outer surface and its felting and spinning 
properties. Hair, as distinguished from wool has no scaly structure, 
with few exceptions, being a smooth, straight filament, having no 
felting properties and spinning with great difficulty. Fur is the 
undergrowth which is found on most hair-bearing animals, and has 
to a modified extent the imbricated structure and felting properties 
of wool. For textile purposes the best classifications are probably 
as follows : Wool, that fibre grown on sheep which has both felt- 
ing and spinning properties. Fur, that class of fibres which has 
felting properties only. Hair, that fibre which Avith the few ex- 
ceptions can be neither spun nor felted. 

Bristles, hedge-hog spines and porcupine quills are all modi- 
fications of hair, having the same composition, mode of formation 
and general structure. 

Of cow hair, horse hair, dog hair, human hair, the last-named 
is softest and most wavy, though very different from wool. 

WOOL SUBSTITUTES. 

Wool Wastes. Noil consists of the short fibre which is 
combed from carded wool intended to be manufactured into worsted 



37 



20 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 

yarn. It is a valuable stock, and is used in woolen goods. It is 
made in many grades, and is generally mixed with other fibre in 
manufacturing. Many desired effects in cloth are obtained by the 
use of wool, mohair, or camel's-hair noils only. 

Ring Waste, Yarn Waste and Hardends are waste threads in 
process of manufacture, and come from the drawing-room, spinning- 
room, etc. They are garnetted before using. In other words, these 
stocks are run through the garnett machine to convert them from 
the form of thread into loose fibres. 

Card Waste, as its name implies, comes from the carding ma- 
chines, and is used in woolens of a medium or low grade. 

Flocks are very short fibres, generally gigged, fulled, or 
sheared from cloth in the finishing-room. They are used largely 
in the manufacture of low-grade goods. 

So much misunderstanding exists concerning shoddies, that it 
has been deemed advisable to have the student know what the 
English authority, McLaren, remarks upon the subject : " A few 
words must here be said on remanufactured fibres, known to the 
world under the common name of ' shoddy.' There are few more 
unreasonable and foolish prejudices than that against shoddy, and 
so far from it being a term of reproach, it should really be one of 
praise ; for the man who first brought shoddy into use has con- 
ferred an incalculable benefit on the world, and enabled millions of 
persons to be warmly and cheaply clothed, who must otherwise be 
shivering with cold. It would be as unreasonable to despise 
paper-makers because they use up linen rags, or to despise dyers 
who use up colors made from coal tar, as to despise manufac- 
turers who use up waste woolen rags as shoddy. It is said that 
125,000,000 pounds of shoddy, mungo, etc., are manufactured 
into cloth every year in England alone. If this immense quantity 
were wasted, it is difficult to estimate the increase which would 
take place in the price of wool and the consequent dearness of 
cloth, but the result would be that countless persons would be 
unable to afford proper clothing." 

Shoddy is manufactured from soft rags, such as woolen stock- 
ings, flannels, blankets, woolen comforters, or any soft, woolen 
goods. The rags from which they are made are generally cata- 
logued " Soft Woolen Rags." 



28 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 21 

It will be noticed that when these soft rags are pulled apart 
by the ragpicker that the product must necessarily be only of 
medium length. When examined under a very powerful micro- 
scope shoddy is seen to contain mixed fihreg, coarse and fine, white 
and colored. It is impossible for the shoddy fibre to show the 
uniform and legular structure of the original wool fibre, as the 
scales and serrations are more or less destroyed in the first manu- 
facture, so that the fibres lose their elasticity and felting qualities. 
The nature of the fabrics from which shoddies are made do not as 
a rule require very good felting wools. Shoddy was first intro- 
duced to the public in 1813 by Benjamin Law of Batley, England. 

Mungo. The invention of this much-abused article of com- 
merce is due to George Parr of Howley Mill, near Batley, Eng- 
land. The name is derived from the curious vernacular of the 
district, translated, — mun, must ; go, go : must go, — mungo. It 
is said to have originated in an argument concerning a very poor 
grade of stock which could scarcely be put in operation. One 
man said it would not go, when Samuel Parr, brother of George, 
remarked : " It mun go " (It must go). 

Mungo (an English term) is manufactured from such materials 
as broadcloths, overcoatings and felted woolens, and are designated 
among the rag dealers and buyers as " hard woolens." There are 
two varieties of mungo, "new " and "old." The former is made 
from new rags, collected from tailors and wholesale clothing man- 
ufacturers, while the latter is made from old rags. As hard- 
made woolens have had a great amount of felting, it is difficult to 
get any great length of fibre ; but it has one great quality in its 
favor, that is its fine felting property. It is this felting together 
of the fibres that makes it difficult to get any great lengtli of 
staple from the ragpicker. 

Extract. This material was invented also in Batley, Eng- 
land, about the year 1854. Extract is derived from waste fabrics 
that have a cotton warp and woolen or mohair filling, or in fabrics 
where the cotton has been mixed with the raw materials. The 
word extract gives some idea of the substance or material. The 
rags are subjected to a chemical treatment, the object of which is 
to recover the animal fibres. The vegetable thread or cotton 
mixture is destroyed by a process of carbonization. The funda- 



29 



22 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



mental principle of the process consists in the rags being steeped 
in a solution of sulphuric acid and water, and then heated to 
140° C. Tlie water is evaporated, leaving the sulphuric acid in a 
concentrated form upon tlie tissue ; in which state it has a very 
powerful action upon the vegetable matter (cotton) which may be 
contained in the rags, and thus reducing the vegetable matter to 
such a condition that it powders when put through the carbon- 
izing duster. The powder or dust is taken away by means of a 
fan. Tlie recovered woolen fiber is now taken to the washing 




FOR HYDROCHLORIC 
ACID GAS 



Fig. 10. Apparatus for Dry Carbonizing. 

machine to lemove the acid. The two processes used in carbon- 
izing or extracting, as it is commonly called, are : 

1. Carbonization of the vegetable substances with liquid acids and 
salts. 

2. Carbonization by the application of gases. 

The former may be divided into four operations. 

The immersion of the wool or cloth into the diluted acid 
liquor of 5° to 7° Baum^; partial drying in a hydro-extractor; 
exposure to a temperature of from 200° to 300° Fahrenheit, and 
the removal of the acid for the application of dyes. The manner 
of carrying this process out will be fully described under wool 
carbonization. 

Dry Carbonization is the introduction of hydrochloric-acid 
gas to the wool. The wool is placed in an air-tight chamber. 



80 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 23 



where it is exposed to the action of the gas for several hours. 
The gas is then stopped, and steam enters the pipes, raising the 
temperature to 215°. All the apertures are opened after a short 
time, and air is introduced to remove the fumes of the gas. The 
wool is then washed, as before indicated. 

Fig. 10 shows a practical machine for this method of carbon- 
izing. A is a steel cylinder, into which the rags or other stock is 
introduced. This cylinder is inside the brick house B, and re- 
volves on the shaft C by means of the gear D and worm E. F is 
a steel pipe, through which the gas enters the cylinder, and also 
acts as a shaft, as does C. The hydrochloric-acid gas is made in 
a retort from a mixture of salt and sulphuric acid. The retoit is 
fomid to contain crude glauber salts when the process of carbon- 
ization is completed. In order to heat the house B, and conse- 
quently the contents of the cylinder, a furnace whose flue coils 
under the floor at G, is sometimes used instead of steam. 

This method of carbonization is but little used in this country, 
and then only on dark stocks, as the process has a tendency to 
impart a yellow tinge to white wools. 

The felting properties of extracts are not good. They are 
wanting in fullness, elasticity and the lofty, springy character 
which is so noticeable in new wool. These characteristics are of 
course necessary for the production of the best cloth. 

Extracts can be obtained in many shades and colors suitable 
for almost any class of fabrics. The wet-extracting process has 
extended to new wool, for the purpose of freeing it of burrs, 
straw, seeds and other vegetable substances. The process has 
been so much perfected that it is taking the place of the burr 
picker, which was formerly the only means of cleaning wool. 
This fact is so evident that there is every reason to believe that 
eventually the chemical will supplant the mechanical separation 
of vegetable substances from the raw wool, save those stocks 
which contain large burrs. 

WOOL SORTING. 

It is a natural supposition that the manufacturer sorts the 
fleece of wool into the divisions, varieties and qualities which best 
suit the requirements of the fabric upon which he is working. 



§3 



24 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



The wool sorter requires very few tools or implements, the 
appliances most necessary being a sorting table with a wire screen 
top, whereon to lay the fleece, and through which any loose dirt, 
straw and other impurities may fall, a pair of wool-sorter's shears 
for cutting off the paint and tarry matter, and as many baskets or 
slat boxes as there are qualities and kinds to be made. 

The accompanying picture (Fig. 11) shows two wool-sorters' 
benches and general arrangement in use in some large mills in 
this country. A is the screen on the table, through which some 
of the impurities fall. The box:es or crates for the different sorts 
are placed in two rows at right angles to the bench, and forming 
an alley to the rack B, on which the bags of wool are placed. 



rrrn 
nrn 



rrn 

crrn 




Fig. 11. Wool Sorters Bench. 

Under these racks at C are the steam pipes, which heat the wool 
so that the fleeces can be opened out easily. In cold weather the 
yolk, or natural grease, in the wool becomes so stiff that unless 
heat is applied the fleeces cannot be spread out flat on the bench 
without tearing tliem apart. 

To divide the fleece into the different qualities, or sorts, that 
are usually understood to be the standard kinds, the nature of 
the fleece must be thoroughly understood. Wool is taken from 
sheep, young and old, male and female, when shearing, and the 



38 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 25 

fleeces roust be graded according to age and sex. A lamb or 
sheep before the first shearing is called a hog or hogget, and at 
this period may be anywhere between six months and a year old. 
A sheep after the first shearing is called a wether, the age may 
be one year or more. 

The wool of tlie first clip or shearing is pointed at the, tip and 
a lock or staple of wool dwindles to a point, these characteristics 
distinguishing it as lambs' wool or hog wool. Hog wool is more 
valuable than an}^ later shearing, which is known as wether wool, 
because the natural formation has not been interfered with, and 
therefore the wool can be spun to finer counts. The fibre lock, or 
staple, of wool from the wether is, on account of the shearing, more 
or less square at the tip, but the fleece is generally more free from 
small pieces of twigs, straw, dirt, and other vegetable impurities 
which are usually found in the lamb's fleece. On account of these 
differences in the value of these two fleeces, it is essential that the 
sorter be able to judge which is hog and which is wether fleece. 

There is another method of judging the two fleeces, and that 
is by pulling a staple of wool from each fleece. If the wool is 
from a wether, the staple will leave the skin and come away from 
the other wool more freely without interfering with the fibers at 
the root; bat if it is a hog's wool, when the staple is pulled 
away some of the fibres of the surrounding staples, or locks, will 
adhere to the staple drawn out. Thus hog wool does not leave 
the fleece easily and cleanly, but the staple of the wether will 
come away without any fibres adhering to the roots of the wool. 

The fleece of a sheep after being sheared, and before sorting, 
resembles the form or shape of the sheep. The cut on page 27 
will give an idea, of the various qualities, or sorts, that can be 
taken from an individual fleece. It must be thoroughly un- 
derstood that wool from every variety and breed of sheep varies 
according to whether the fleece is from a coarse or flne breed, 
whether it is a cheviot or merino sheep, and that each individual 
fleece contains many qualities of wool. These qualities of the 
wool in some cases are very low, while in others the qualities are 
very high. At the same time the variations on the same fleece 
may differ as much as does the wool from two distinct varieties 
of sheep. P^ig. 12 shows fourteen distinct divisions, or qualities, 



33 



26 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



of wool on the same fleece. Tliese various qualities are separated 
by tearing away each division by hand. The fleece is first laid on 
the sorting table, and the poorest part and the dirty edges torn 
off. The process is known as "skirting" the fleece. The fleece 
is then divided into two other portions through the middle, from 
fore and hind part. The fine part near the ear is then removed. 
Superfine wool, which is obtained from this portion, is divided into 
two qualities. After this the shoulder is stripped, which is semi- 
fine, and the flank, which gives medium wool. The wool of the 
upper thigh is classed as coarse, while that of the lower thigh is 
classed as very coarse. Otlier qualities are foimed by separating 
wool mixed with straw and tarry matter. As there are so many 
ways of dividing the fleece, several good divisions are shown 
here. 

High qualities, wools from the best portions of the fleece : 

1. Superfine, from near the ear. 

2. Fine, between ear and shoulder. 

3. Semifine, from the shoulder. 

4. Medium, from the flanks. 

5. Coarse, from the upper thigh. 

6. Very coarse, from the lower thigh. 
Low qualities: 

1st qualit}^, embracing the lower belly and forehead, 

2nd quality, the lowest pait of the thighs. 

3rd quality, breech locks. 

4th quality, tarry and paint marks. 

McLaren's description, — different qualities of wool (Fig. 12.) : 

" No. 1 is the shoulder, where the wool is long and fine. It 
grows the closest and is most even. 

"No. 2 is rather stronger, but otherwise equally good. The 
best and soundest wool grows on these parts. 

"No. 3, on the neck, is shorter than No. 1, but even finer; 
where sheep are likely to have gray wool it is sure to be found 
here, and also on No. 4, which, with No. 5 grows wool of inferior 
staple and faulty character. 

" No. 6, which covers the loin and back, is coarser and shorter, 
while on 

"No. 7, the wool is long, strong, and hangs in laige staples. 



84 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 27 

On crossbred sheep this part becomes very coarse, and is much 
the same as 

" No. 8, which is the coarsest part of the wool, and is known as 
breech or britch, and even, when very strong, as 'cow-taiL' When 
like this it ahiiost resembles horsehair, though it is more brittle 
and not so smooth and briglrt. 

"No. 9 is also strong, and much the same as No. 7. 

"No. 10 is short, dirty and increases in fineness as the front 
legs are approached ; it is known as ' brokes.' 

" No. 11 is also short and fine, while 




Fig. 12. 

"No. 12, the front of the throat, is short and worn with rub- 
bing. 

" Kemps, or dead hairs are mostly found in No. 12 and No. 8, 
though in the latter they are much longer and stronger than in 
the former. 

" No. 13 is the head, on which the wool is very short indeed, 
rough and coarse like the legs. 

" No. 14 it is still worse, and of very little value." 

Dr. Bowman's system of dividing the fleece : 

" The finest and most even-grown wool is always found on the 



35 



28 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



two shoulders, about the positions marked A A, Fig. 13 ; in some 
fleeces this quality extends more into E and B B and F than in 
others, and the quality of the wool at B B is not very much inferior, 
although rather stronger and coarser. These two qualities are called 
in the woolen trade picklock and prime, or choice, while the wool 
found in the position C is frequently fiuer in the staple, but shorter 
than A A or B B, and likely to be more defaced by irregular or 
colored hairs ; when free from these defects it forms a super quality. 
The qualities D and E shade into those on each side of them, and as 

HEAD 




HIND 
LLG 



HIND 
LLG 



Fig. 13. 

they form the apex of the neck and shoulders, they are less deep 
grown or close in the staple than A or C. The quality F closely re- 
sembles B B, into Avhich it shades ; and for many purposes, especially 
for spinning down. A, B, E, and F are frequently used as one 
quality. In Bradford the wool from the shoulders and neck is 
usually called blue, or fine matching, according as the quality of 



36 




CO 6 






O =3 









WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 29 

the fleece may be. In an ordinary Leicester fleece it would be 
blue matching, and would spin to 40s. If, however, the fleece 
was of a'superior quality, such as fine Kent, selected for quality, it 
would make fine matching, and would spin to 42s or even 44s. If, 
however, the fleece was a strong Lincoln or Gloucester, it would 
probably only be classed as neat matching, and would in that case 
spin no farther than 36s. When we pass beyond F backwards on 
to the flanks of the sheep the wool becomes long and coarse, the 
best being found in the positions marked C C ; and this would 
make what is called brown matching or drawing, which would not 
spin higher than 32s, even in fine, selected fleeces of English wool, 
and in many not as high. At H and 1 1 the coarsest part of the fleece 
is reached, where the wool grows in large locks with long, coarse 
hairs. The latter is called the breech or britch, and can only be 
used for very coarse yarns and low numbers, not spinning higher 
than 26s, even when the fleece is comparatively fine in the other 
parts ; sometimes it is also called " say cast." From the extremities 
of 1 1 there is often taken a lower quality still, which is called tail, 
or even cow-tail, from the resemblance which the hair possesses to 
the strong tuft growing at the end of the cow's tail ; and of course 
this can only be used for the lowest numbers. There are usually 
also a quantity of hard lumps, consisting of matted fibre and dirt, 
which have to be cut off with the shears by the sorter, and are 
called toppings ; these are smaller in proportion as the flock is well 
tended and the seasons fine. 

In the ordinary English fleeces all these qualities are long 
enough to be combed, but just around the edges of the fleece, in 
the position marked J J and K K, and at the furthest ends of D 
and C C, nearest the head, we have a very short stapled wool, 
which grows in small tufts or staples, called shorts or brokes, and 
which are used for carding. In quality they correspond to the 
longer wools, with which they are associated in the different posi- 
tions on the body. They are usually divided into three qualities, 
which correspond to the blue or fine matching ; the neat matching 
and the britch, the finest which are derived from the extremi- 
ties of D, C C and the position K, are often called super or 
downrights ; those which grow on the position J J, especially the 
forward part, are called middle or seconds, and those from the 



39 



30 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



extremities of J J nearest to I are called common or abb ; when the 
fleece is crossbred, and even in some cases where it is not, there 
is always a tendency to the production of kemps along the skirt, 
but especially at the parts marked K K and the extremity nearest 
the head ; the kemps occur in the combing wool most frequently 
in the region of the tail in the part marked H." 

None but a skilled workman can sort wools with precision 
and accuracy ; the practiced eye and hand of the wool sorter fol- 
lows the divisions to its boundary according to the number of 
qualities required. At one time the manufacturer may require 




■ Fig. 14. 

his wool fleeces sorted into six or more qualities, at another time 
he may only require two kinds, with the coarsest breech thrown 
by itself. 

In American mills fleeces are frequently sorted as shown in 
Fig. 14. 

The skirts at 3—3-3 are first removed, and make one sort; 
then 1-1 are taken for the best quality ; after which the strong, 
coarse locks 2-2-2 are removed for the lowest sort, and the re- 
mainder..4 forms still another sort, comprising the good, medium- 
grade wool. 



40 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 3l 

WOOL CLEANSING. 

Arrangement of Dusting, Scouring. Carbonizing and Dry- 
ing riachinery. The tendency toward continuous automatic proc- 
esses of manufacture is more marked to-day than at any time in 
the history of the woolen industry, and owing to the general 
movement in this direction, we are enabled to secure greater 
production. In well-equipped mills, especially those running on 
wools which contain more or less earthy matter, after the fleeces 
have been sorted and before they are sent to the scouring machines, 
it is customary to run them through a machine known as the 
Duster, in order to shake out as much dirt, shives, straws and 
other extraneous matter as possible, thus making a distinct saving 
in the scouring process. 

Fig. 15 shows the ground plan and sectional elevation of a 
train of machines for dusting, scouring and drying wool. A is 
the first automatic feed in which the wool is placed after being 
sorted. This feed delivers the stock into the duster B, from 
which it is dropped onto the feed apron C, of the first scouring bowl. 
This feed apron delivers the wool directly into the first bowl, 
through which it passes to the second and then to the third. 
From this point, the wool falls upon a traveling apron D, which 
delivers it to the automatic feed E, and from which it is carried 
into the dryer F. 

There are a variety of arrangements for this train of machines, 
wholly depending upon the general plan of the mill. Fig. 16 
shows the machines for the operation of this process upon two 
different floors. It is quite customary where the scouring room 
is situated on the floor below the wool shop to have the automatic 
feed and the duster on the floor with the wool shop itself. The 
wool is dropped upon the floor back of the duster after passing 
through it, and near which place is a chute through which the 
attendant occasionally pushes the accumulated stock. This chute 
leads directly into the automatic feed of the scouring train which 
delivers the wool into the first bowl. In many plants the dryer 
is in a different part of the mill from where the scouring machines 
are situated, and the best method of handling the stock in this 
case, is to connect the doffer apron of the last bowl with the 
dryer by means of a blower and suitable pipe. 



41 



32 



WOOLEN AKD WORSTED SPINNING. 



The apron D, in Fig. 15, may be dispensed with if the dryer 
and the feed, E, are at right angles to the third bowl, wlien the 





o '^ 



H o 







apron in the third bowl may deliver directly into the feed. This 
arrangement also applies if all of these machines are set tandem 
to one another, that is, in a straight line. 



42 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 33 

Carbonizing Train. In mills where biirry wools are used 
extensively, and where carbonizing is largely employed, an 
arrangement similar to Fig. 17, or a modification thereof, is cus- 
tomary in the better equipped plants. It will be understood that 
the duster and scouring machines are set in the same manner as 
in Fig. 15. The apron and feed deliver the wool to the carboniz- 
ing bowl, F. From the carbonizing bowl the wool passes directly 
to the press rolls of this bowl and from the apron attached thereto, 
is dropped into the feed G, which delivers it to the carbonizing 
dryer. From this dryer, by means of the doffer apron, it is 
delivered into an automatic feed of the same width as the crush 
rolls. The crash roll machine now passes the crushed product to 
another feed, which delivers it to the duster. In some plants the 
carbonizing duster J, equipped with crush rolls is employed, but 
inasmuch as the rolls on this machine cannot be made as wide as 
those upon the crush roll machine, the former method is prefer- 
able. 

The wool is now ready for the mixing picker or the dye 
house, provided acid colors are to be used. If not, another feed 
may pass the stock into the neutralizing bowl or bowls as in this 
elevation K and K', and from there to the dryer or to the dye 
house. Owing to the variety of stocks handled by woolen mills, 
arrangements of this nature would be applicable to probably a 
small percent of the plants, but as many changes and modifica- 
tions may be made in these arrangements, it is very necessary 
that some idea of the more advanced methods should be given. 
Certain combinations of cleansing and drying machinery used in 
connection with aprons, automatic feeds and blowers could be 
used with a considerable saving of time and attendance in almost 
every woolen and worsted yarn mill. 

The train in Fig. 17 is especially adapted for scouring and 
carbonizing noils. The arrangement of the machines is somewhat 
similar to that of the machines in Fig. 15. Dusting before scour- 
ing has been dispensed with, and the scouring machines have been 
reduced in size and number. 

Automatic Feeds. In handling wool and other fibres in the 
subsequent processes of woolen and worsted spinning, as already 
seen, automatic feeding devices are used at various points ; con- 



43 



34 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 




44 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPtNiSTING. 



35 



sequently, a description of the types in general use will suffice 
until the operation of carding is described, when the weighing 







O 



be 



feed will be explained. 

The High Feed used ordinarily for grease wools in connec- 



45 



36 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



tion with the wool duster or washer is built to handle long stock, 
i. e., from 5" staple upwards, and is generally used on worsted 
wools. An elevation of this machine is shown in Fig. 18. Its 
main features are a hopper, the bottom of which is an endless slat 
apron, and a spike elevating apron which conveys the wool to the 
machine which it is feeding. The bottom apron is composed of. 
wooden slats securely riveted to leather apron" belts running over 
suitable apron pulleys as shown at A, in the cross section of this 
feed at Fig. 19. The apron is lined with canvas to avoid the 
possibility of wool fibres falling between the slats, winding around 




Fig. 18. Higti Feed 

the apron pulleys and doing damage. This apron, which continu- 
ally revolves slowly, forces the wool which has been placed in 
the hopper against the spike lifting apron, B, which in turn 
carries it up and past the oscillating comb, C. The surplus 
amount of wool is here combed off and falls back into the hopper. 
The balance is carried over the top of the apron to the revolving 
beater, D, which disengages it from the spikes and throws it off. 
The wool may fall upon a short rapidly revolving doifer apron, or 
by the action of the beater, directly into the liquor of the scour- 
ing bowl. 



46 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



37 



The spike apron is made of heavy, spiked slats supported on 
leather belts and protected in the rear by canvas in the manner 
described for the bottom apron. At a point nearly opposite the 
revolving beater is a binder roll, E, which makes an angle in the 
apron ; tlie front of the apron and the rear not being parallel. As 
the beater is nearly opposite the vertex of this angle of the apron, 
its action is much more effective in whipping the wool from the 




Fig. 19. Sectional View of Higli Feed. 

points of the teeth to the machine to which the wool is to be 
delivered. 

There are several methods by which a greater or less quan- 
tity of wool may be handled by this machine. The oscillating 
comb in front is capable of adjustment forward or backward, so 
that a greater or less amount of wool passes up the apron to be 
delivered, according as desired. On some makes of feeds the 
aprons are also allowed various speeds, according to requirements 
by an arrangement of step pulleys, Tlje most important feature 



4T 



38 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



of the high feed and its capability of handling long wool is in the 
following: It is necessary in handling long wool or fleece, that the 




Fig. 20. Low Feed 




Fig. 21. Sectional View of Low Feed 

distance around the top of the apron, from the comb to the beater, 
shall be great enough so that these two factors do not operate 



48 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



39 



upon the same fibre or fleece at the same time ; otherwise, they 
would naturally cause breakage of staple, or clogging of the 
machine. The capacity of the hopper, roughly speaking, is 400 
or 500 pounds, depending, of course, upon the width of the 
machine. 

The Loiv Feed, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 20, 
is in general method of construction the same as the preceding 
feed. It is intended for cotton or short staple wool, and gener- 
ally speaking, may be considered as the best type of feed for the 
woolen mill. In the cross section shown in Fig. 21^ A is the 
bottom slatted apron, similar in construction to the apron on 




Fig. 22. Another Type of Low Feed. 



the high feed. This feed is generally fitted with a revolving tooth 
comb C, the teeth of which after coming in contact with the wool 
on the spiked apron B, and combing off the surplus amount, are 
feathered or drawn back so as not to engage with the fiber. The 
oscillating comb is occasionally used instead of this form. 

The spiked apron, and revolving beater D, are similar in 
construction. It will, however, be noticed that on account of the 
length of stock handled in this feed, the comb and beater are 
much nearer together. Variations of speeds may be effected on 
the low feed in a similar manner as on the high feed. 



40 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING, 



Dusting. Before presenting wool to the scouring machines 
and in order to free it from as much dust and dirt as possible, 
the Duster is used. Heavy and light dirt particles and extraneous 
matter are removed through two agencies ; the action of the cylin- 
der combined with the grid and the action of the air current from 
the fan, respectively. This machine answers not only for this 
purpose but opens the fleece, breaking up cotted wools, thus allow- 
ing the liquor free access to all of the fibers. 

The Cone Buster. There are two forms of duster in common 
use, the Cone and the Square. A cross section elevation of a 




Fig. 23. Sectional Elevation of Duster. 

simple cone duster is shown at Fig. 23. A and A' indicate 
the cylinder which is cone-shaped, 4 ft. in diameter at the large end 
and 26" at the small end. It is equipped with four lags in which 
are set iron teeth which mesh with stationary teeth on each side 
of the machine. Above the cone is the fan B, which draws away 
much of the lighter particles, such as straw, loose burs, chaff, etc. 
Below the cone at C is either a grid or screen through which the 
heavier particles, such as dirt and sand fall. 



50 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



41 



Fio-. 24 looking down upon the machine, shows the fan at 
B and also the general shape of the cone cylinder. G is the 
apron upon which the stock is thrown either by hand or from an 
automatic feed. The feed roll is shown at F, and the passage 
through which the wool is ejected is at D. When the wool enters 
the machine, the cock spur teeth with whicli the feed roll is 
equipped hold it momentarily while it is beaten and somewhat 
opened by the teeth of the cylmder. The cylinder revolves at a 
speed of about 400 revolutions per minute. The bottom and sides 




Fig. 24. Plan of Duster. 

of the machine are air-tight so that the fan running at about 800 
R. P. M., can draw air up through the stock through a screen situ- 
ated under the fan, thus drawing away the light particles. The 
heavier particles fall through the screen underneath the cylinder. 
A type of duster in general use is shown at Fig. 25 and is 
equipped with a worker roll. This roll is situated at the back of 
the machine and is plainly seen in this rear view. This assists 
materially in opening up the stock. It is detachable and when 
dusting medium length wools, if there is the least danger of tear- 
ing them, the worker should be removed. The arrangement of 
the working parts is given in the diagram Fig. 26 ; the arrows on 



n 



42 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



the rolls, pulleys, etc., indicate the direction in which they revolve 
while the groups of arrows show the direction of the air current. 
A is the apron, B the feed roll, C the cylinder, D the worker, E 
the fan, F the removable screen above the cylinder, and G the 
screen or grid below the cylinder. 

There is little to say in regard to the handling of these 
machines, save that it is very important for the lower portion to 




Fig. 25. Duster With Worker Roll. 

be air-tight, and that dirt under the grid should not be allowed to 
accumulate in too great quantity. The floor space occupied by 
the duster is 9 X 7|^ feet. 

One of the important features of the cone duster is the 
fact that it makes this process continuous ; the wool, owing to 
centrifugal force, moving continually from the feed end of the 



52 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



43 



machine to the outlet. This is, of course, due to the cone-shaped 
cylinder. 

Fig. 33 on page 56, the carbonizing duster, is in its essential 
features much like the cone duster already described and is re- 
ferred to at this point owing to the fact that the front of the 
machine is open and shows the screen under the cylinder, a por- 




Fig. 26. Sectional Yiew of Duster, Showing Working Parts. 

tion of the cylinder itself, and also the swing door underneath, 
through which the dirt is taken from the machine. 

The Square Buster shown in Fig. 27 is based on an earlier 
form of machine. The stock after being received upon the apron 
passes between rolls and thus into an ordinary square spiked cyl- 



53 



44 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



inder, which performs much the same duty as the cone cylinder, 
save that the stock must be taken out by hand, thus preventing a 
continuous process. 

Wool Scouring Machinery. Owing to the peculiar structure 
of wool fiber, it must have no violent treatment or unnecessary 
agitation after it has been placed in the scouring bath, as it is 
subject to injury by the manipulations of the scouring machine, 
felting by pressure and friction during the wet state ; and that to 
get an open, free, and lofty wool, it must be only sufficiently 




Fig. 27. Square Duster. 

agitated to cleanse it thoroughly. Therefore, it is the duty of the 
manufacturer to open and free it from as many impurities previous 
to scouring as it is possible for him to do. 

Scouring machines have been vastly improved during the last 
fift}^ years. Fig. 28 illustrating an old form in use many years ago. 
It consisted of a tank in which the wool was prodded with poles 
to keep it in motion, and a squeeze box and lever for extracting 
from it afterward some of the surplus water or scouring liquor. 
The production by means of this primitive method was only a few 
hundred pounds per day. 

The Parallel Rake Wool Washing Machine shown at Fig. 29 



54 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



45 



is a common form of washer in use today, 16 ft. in length, and 
which is known as the Parallel Rake Motion Wool Washer. The 
bowls of a wool washer are built in various lengths according to the 
needs of the plant. The general sizes are 16 ft., 21 ft., 27 ft., 32 ft., 
and 37 ft., and also in several widths; 24", 36", and 48". Scour- 




Fig. 28. A Scouring Machine of Fifty Years Ago. 

ing trains are built in different combinations of bowls — ■ one in front 
of another, depending upon the amount of wool to be scoured. A 
combination of bowls frequently used in mills scouring about say 
15,000 lbs. of greasy wool per day, 50% shrinkage, is four bowls 
48" wide consisting first of a 37 ft. bowl, second, one of 27 feet 
and the other two 21 ft. each, in which the first two bowls are 




Fig. 29. A Modern Type of Sixteen Foot Bowl. 

used as " Scourers" having the soap solution contained therein* 
and the last two bowls piped with overflows for running water 
and used as <■■ Hmsers." 

Another very good combination for a washing machine is 
three bowls ; the first one 32 ft. in length and the others 24 ft. 
each. In the carpet yarn trade, there are combinations consisting 



55 



46 



WOOLEN" AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



T 



of four bowls. First bowl 37 ft., second and third bowls 32 ft., 
fourth bowl 27 ft. This makes a string 
of machines 125 ft. long and will scour 
about 20,000 to 24,000 lbs. of greasy wool 
per day. 

After the wool is thoroughly dusted, 
it is thrown into the hopper of the self- 
feed, which delivers it evenly into the feed 
end of the wool washing machine. Often- 
times no self feed is used on the washer, 
in which case the wool is fed by hand on 

'^ the traveling apron. In using the auto- 
matic feed, the feed apron is dispensed 
with, and the wool drops from the doffer 

^ beater directly into the scouring liquor in 
the first bowl, and is immersed by the 
ducker plate. This is a hollow rectangular 
basket of sheet copper with perforated 
bottom ; Fig. 30. 

3 The wool is now carried along through 

the liquor by means of the rakes, C C, 
hanging vertically, and attached in parallel 
rows to the rails D D by means of the 
rake heads. It is very desirable that the 
wool shall travel along with as little agi- 
tation as possible, particularly with comb- 
ing wools, and it is the duty of the men 
in charge to handle the wool in such a 

) manner that it may not become roped, 
felted, or stringy. The " parallel " motion 
of this machine meets these requirements. 
Machines of this description are known 
as "parallel rake," not from the fact that 
the teeth or forks are arranged in parallel 
rows, but from the orbit or path in which 
any point, say the tips of the teeth, travel. 
The teeth enter the liquor in a vertical 
direction, till the points come within a quarter of an inch of the 



DD 



56 



Woolen AisrD worsted spinning. 47 

copper perforated false bottom, when they change their direction 
of motion to a forward one, that is, parallel to the false bottom, 
and the surface of the liquor. After traveling ahead in this hori- 
zontal line fourteen inches, they withdraw from the liquor in a 
vertical line or at right angles to their forward motion. 

After the teeth are wholly out of the liquor, they go back to 
their former position in the arc of a circle describing a semi-cir- 
cumference. It will thus be seen that the motion of the rakes 
while in the liquor is rectilinear, and not circular. The object of 
this as previously stated is to avoid the possibility of roping, felting 
or stringing the wool. 

The wool after passing the length of the bowl arrives at the 
carrier E, which delivers it to the press rolls F. The carrier is an 
arrangement of brass fingers or forks which have a forward and 
backward motion. In its forward motion it carries the wool ahead 
over a perforated brass table and in its backward motion it lifts 
over the wool until it arrives at its former position, and moves 
ahead with a fresh supply. The carrier is actuated by a crank H 
which has a 7" throw. This makes 4 revolutions to one of the 
rake crank I. That is, the carrier runs 28 motions per minute. 
On the end of the carrier crank shaft is a gear of 118 teeth. 
Also on the end of the rake shaft is a gear of 144 teeth. These 
gears run independently but are each driven by two smaller gears 
on a side shaft below and between them — the 118 tooth gear 
meshes with a 60 tooth, and the 144 tooth gear meshes with an 18 
tooth gear. On the side shaft there is also a 24" tight and loose 
pulley which drives direct from a 12" pulley on a countershaft 
running 113 revolutions per minute. Thus the side shaft runs 
56| revolutions, and runs the carrier 287 R. P. M. and the rakes 
7.06". It will be noticed that the rake crank I drives the rake 
by the crank pin working in a slot of connection M. It is this 
arrangement which causes the rake to travel ahead horizontally 
upon the roller tracks N. 

The weight of the rake is counterbalanced by the weights O. 
The level of the liquor in the bowl is three inches from the top, 
and the bite of the nip rolls is on this level. By having the rolls 
low in this manner, the wool goes to them with the fiber open and 
full of liquor. The old style of having the rolls high, and the 



57 



48 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 

wool carried up to them on a steep incline out of the liquor, was 
considered detrimental to the wool, as it had a tendency to felt it. 
With the bite of the rolls low (although the rolls are entirely- 
separated from the liquor by a water-tight girt) there must be 
some provision for the liquor which is squeezed out of the wool in 
passing. This is arranged for by the pan or girt into which the 
liquor flows. From this pan a small pump on the floor beside 
the machine sends the liquor back into the bowl, generally into the 
end of bowl at the feed. The bowls are connected by steam in- 
jectors so that when the liquor gets worthless in the first bowl 
valves are opened in the side (two valves for 16 ft. bowl, three for 
21 ft. bowl, and four for 27 ft. bowl, etc.) and the liquor is thrown 
away. The injector draws the liquor from the second to the first 
bowl, from the third to the second, and from the fourth to the 
third. After passing through the heavy squeeze rolls, which vary 
in weight from 1050 to 1250 lbs. each, and with a pressure of 8 to 
10 tons on the top roll, the wool is delivered from the doffer 
apron into a truck to be carted to the dryer or dye house, or prefer- 
ably into a conveying apron which automatically carries it into 
the self feed of the dryer. 

If it is a two bowl or longer train washer, after passing the 
rolls the wool is delivered by the doffer apron into the next bowl. 
In woolen mills, the last two bowls are generally supplied with 
running water to rinse the wool of particles of soap or alkali 
cariied from the first bowl. 

With the train of machines shown in Fig. 15 the wool can be 
dusted, scoured, rinsed and dried by the labor of one man with 
possibly a helper with no intermediate handling from the time it 
goes into the self feed of the duster until it comes out of the dryer 
ready for the cards or pickers. 

Wool Degreasing. There are various processes for degreas- 
ing wool and for the recovery of the fatty matters contained 
therein, none of which, however, are in very extensive use in this 
country. The wool is placed in a wire carriage and run into air- 
tight cylinders on trucks, the air then being extracted from the 
cylinders. After this, gasolene is run into the tanks and by means 
of a steam coil the pressure is raised to about 15 lbs. The gasolene 
is now drawn away and the stock freed from it as much as possible 



58 




" a 

w 

K 
X 
H 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 49 

before gC'ing into the deodorizer, a hooded macliine built something 
after the manner of a wool dryer. Heie steam and air are forced 
through the stock, by which process all of the gasolene is removed. 
The wool is now scoured, but with much less soap than would 
ordinarily be used. The gasolene is afterwards distilled to free it 
from the yolk or sumt which it contains. 

Flume or Makeless Washer. This type of machine though 
not in general use is in operation in some plants. The machine 
takes the name of flume washer from the fact that the liquor is 
discharged from the trough back into the lower bowl, propelling 
the wool without forks or rakes; Fig. 31. 

A is where the liquor is mixed and the wool goes into the bowl. 

B is the pump located below the water line, and a few inches 
above the bottom of the bowl. 

C is the trough from which the liquor is pumped. This trough 
has catcher boxes D where the sediment is caught. The valve is 
open and the contents of .the boxes discharged into the bowl A 
and from there into the sewer. 

E is a fluted roll which revolves slowly, passing the stock 
forward to the carrier ; it also keeps the liquor at the right height 
in the trough C. 

F is the copper ducker which travels or swivels on pipes G. 
These duckers have a forward, up, back and downward movement 
by crank H and I. Near the extreme end of the machine is a 
carrier, which passes the stock to the squeeze rolls. K is a small 
catch box, under the squeeze rolls, with perforated copper piece 
near its top to catch any stock which may drop from the rolls. 
The sediment which is squeezed from stock is caught here, and 
the good liquor returned to bowl A to be used over again. The 
grease rises to the top of the liquor, and is retained in the bowl 
and does not come in contact with the stock. The stock as it 
floats through the trough is immersed by the duckers and as they 
are made with the swivel movement, they give the stock a slight 
squeeze on the bottom, and as they lift, push it forward. 

Referring to the liquor being kept at its proper level which 
is about 7 inches above the false bottom ; in the trough there is 
an overflow on the sides, taking the surplus water from under the 
false bottom so that no wool can escape. 



59 



60 



WOOLEK AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



The top press roll is covered with rubber or lapping and is 

14" in diameter, which is 
also the diameter of the bot- 
tom roll. These rolls weigh 
about 1000 lbs. each, and the 
pressure is 14 tons when the 
weight and connection are 
out at the extreme ends. 
The duckers travel about 10 
inches, and make eight 
revolutions per minute. 
The speed of the rolls is 10 
revolutions per minute. The 
top roll is driven by friction, 
but when any bunch of stock 
stops it, the ratchet works 
and drives it. This ratchet 
is used because the diameter 
of top roll is changing as 
the rubber or lapping wears 
off. 

Wool Scouring. On e 
of the most important proc- 
esses and one of the first 
operations in woolen and 
woistecl manufacture is the 
washing a n d cleansing o f 
wool, the correct perform- 
ance of which is of more 
consequence than is gener- 
ally imagined by those who 
are not well versed in card- 
ing, spinning and dyeing. 
Scouring as applied to. wool, 
implies a more scientific and 
skillful treatment than a sim- 
ple washing. It is one of 







the most essential and important branches of the woolen and 



60 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



51 



worsted trades, besides requiring oii the part of those in charge of 
the department, a thorough knowledge of chemistry, as far as 
applicable to the subject, and also a wide experience. 

The scouring of wool is the cleansing of it, from its yolk, 
natural grease, dirt, and other extraneous matter, with which it 
may be impregnated. The aim in accomplishing this is to pro- 




Fig. 32. Crush Roll Machine. 

duce a perfectly clean fiber, the delicate scales of which are unin- 
jured. 

The water used for scouring should be analyzed, in order 
that its action on the soap may be determined, and remedied if 
necessary; for unless the wool be well scoured and cleansed from 
the yolk and grease the subsequent operations will be materially 
effected. The cleansing of wool from all foreign and extraneous 
matter previous to dyeing, is of the utmost importance, and a neces- 



61 



52 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



sary preliminary to the production of good colors and brilliant 
shades. 

There are several reasons why wool should not be subjected 
to violent agitation in the washing machine. As is well known, 
wool readily lends itself to the process of felting, that is, forming 
itself into a solid mass when subjected to moisture and pressure, 
and more especially when soap or other substances of that char- 
acter are present. The locks and fibers become matted together, 
and there is difficulty in dyeing and carding afterward. The deli- 
cate structure of the wool fiber consisting of the scales or serra- 
tions can be injured only too easily. Wool is impregnated with 
yolk or suint, a yellow oily substance caused partly by the accu- 
mulated sweat, and partly by a secretion from the glands of the 
skin which lie at the roots of the fibers. 

This secretion covers the fiber from root to top and takes the 
form of an oily varnish. Yolk or suint is most abundant on sheep 
in hot climates, " and prevails to such an extent that the clean 
wool is often only one third of the original or natural weiglit. 

Wools vary in the composition of foreign and external mat- 
ter. In addition to yolk there are other substances that go to 
make up the weight of the fleece. A merino fleece is said to be 
constituted as follows : 



Earthy substances 


26.06 


Suint or Yolk . 


32.74 


Moisture and Fatty matter 


8.51 


Matter fixed by grease 


1.40 


Clean fiber . , . . . 


31.23 



100 00 



German Wool : 

Mineral matter 
Suint or Yolk 
Moisture 
Clean fiber 



6.3 
44.3 
11.4 
38.0 



100 00 



63 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 53 

Hungarian Washed Wool: 

Mineral matter .... 1.0 

Suint or Yolk . . . „ 27.0 . 

Moisture ..... 7.2 

, Clean fiber . . . . . 64.8 



100.00 
The yolk consists principally of potash and animal oil ; carbon- 
ate of potash, lime, acetate and muriate of potash are also con- 
tained therein and is of much value in softening and preserving 
the wool while it is growing, for it oils the fibers and keeps them 
from matting and felting. This enables the sheep to keep warmer, 
and tends toward producing sounder and healthier wool. 

As scouring should be done without injury either to the 
physical structure, or chemical composition of the fibers, the work 
must be accomplished by the mildest means possible, so that the 
scales will not be injured either by too great heat in the water, 
the use of too strong alkalies, or by excessive pressure, manipula- 
tion and violence in the scouring machines. Thus according to 
the wool in process, softness, strength, lustre and brilliancy must 
be retained. A wool thoroughly cleansed is white, soft, elastic, 
open and lofty, so that it dyes readily, and in the succeeding 
processes cards and spins into a level thread and ultimately pi-o- 
duces a full soft velvety fabric. If these necessary features are 
destroyed by any harsh treatment the fibei- is rendered hard, un- 
pliable, and hask ; it also deteriorates in strength and the luster is 
impaired as these qualities are destroyed in the wool, and so is the 
quality of the fabric that is made from the same wool injured. 

Wool can be almost cleansed in water alone, and if it were 
not for the oily and varnish like matter that adheres to the outer 
surface of the fiber, it could be thoroughly cleansed in a running 
stream of cold water. But as this is always present in ■ greater or 
less quantity, warm water and soap must be resorted to. The 
use of water too hot, or the excessive use of alkalies must be 
avoided for they will not only remove the suint and free oil which 
is associated with it, but the heat and alkali will attack the fatty 
substances of the structural cells, and thus render the fiber hard 
and brittle, and destroy the life of the wool. 



63 



54 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 

Strong alkaline solutions easily dissolve wool, therefore, when 
using alkalies or alkaline salts, with hot water, the greatest care 
and skill must be exercised. The fiber scales when treated only 
with tepid water, lose some of their luster and brilliancy, and 
when treated with boiling water, 212° F, the lustre is still fur- 
ther diminished. If boiling water is superheated to 230° F., it 
will decompose wool, therefore when wool is placed in water which 
is at the boiling point it is within 18° (F.) of heat from the point 
of its destruction. With these facts in. view there is no difficulty 
in comprehending how important it is to know the temperature of 
the water, its quality, and the strength of the alkalies. 

Borax, bi-carbonate of soda, and carbonate of ammonia arr 
substances which effect wool fiber very little and can therefore be 
used as cleansing materials ; scientifically known as detergents. 
Soda is sometimes employed as a detergent ; it destroys some of 
the life of the fiber, and instead of acting as a bleaching agent, 
imparts a j-ellow tinge to the wool. It can, however, be used 
without much injuiy to the fiber if the quantities and temperature 
are properly regulated. A cleansing solution composed of bi-car- 
bonate or sal soda, common salt and ammonia in the first bowl, 
will be found effective, though which might, if nothing else were 
used, leave the wool a little harsh. To counteract this, use a 
small quantity of olive oil and caustic potash in the water of the 
last bowl iu the train. 

Potash has a better effect than soda (carbonate of sodium) as 
there is a small quantity of this detergent in the fibre, and potash 
is the alkali naturally most suitable for whitening and bleaching 
the wool. In scouring wool with an alkali, a volatile and not a fixed 
alkali should be used. The temperature of the washing liquor 
should never be permitted to exceed 120° F. 

Soaps are generally resorted to as the scouring agent. Only 
perfectly neutral soaps should be used, and those in which potash 
enters should invariably be chosen. Soda soaps are more energetic, 
but as they have a tendency to destroy the small filaments or 
serrations of the fiber, they should be used with extreme care or 
not at all, as they are detrimental to the production of perfect 
fabrics. 

The following recipe for potash soap has been used in this 



64 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 55 

country in various mills with very good success. Dissolve 400 
lbs. of caustic potash in about 100 gallons of water. Boil until 
all is thoroughly dissolved. Add enough cold water to jnake up 
400 gallons. This equals one lb. of potash to the gallon of water. 
Let the mixture cool until the temperature is normal, say between 
60° and 70° F, when it will stand at about 14° Twaddle. Run 
this lye into barrels and to each 40 gallons add 10 gallons of red 
oil. Stir occasionally until the ingredients combine, and a soap 
somewhat the consistency of thin jelly will form. 

For scouring, take 125 lbs. of this soap, 199 lbs. of pearl ash, 
and boil in 250 gallons of water until the mixture is thoroughly 
dissolved. 

In applying the above, very greasy wools require from ten 
to twelve pails in each of the two first bowls (1 6 ft. bowls) and 
water in the third and fourth bowls. The man in charge of the 
scouring must by actual experience or tests determine the strength 
of the liquor for the cleaner grades of wool. 

As the soap manufactured for use in woolen aud worsted 
mills is easy of adulterations which are hard to detect, it should 
not be purchased without exhaustive tests and trials under most 
careful supervision. 

A receipt for testing soap is to dissolve one ounce in a given 
quantity of water, put it into a long test glass and add a quarter 
of an ounce of diluted Sulphuric acid. The acid neutralizes the 
alkali ; the grease and resin, if any, will float on the top while 
the earthy matter will fall to the bottom. 

The quantity of water in. soaps may be ascertained by reduc- 
ing a sample of a given weight to parings and placing in a hot 
oven, in which it should be allowed to remain until it ceases to 
become lighter, when the difference between its original and dried 
weight will indicate the percentage of water evaporated. Other 
adulterations may be detected by immersing the soap in a strong 
solution of alcohol, and applying heat, which dissolves the soap 
and leaves the impurities insoluble. 

The next question is the purity of the water. The hardness 
and softness of water is a matter of vital importance, and varies 
according to the proportion of salts, lime, chalk and other mineral 
substances it may contain. When hard water is used for scour- 



65 



56 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



ing purposes without being previously softened^ the lime it con- 
tains, ill many cases, destroys and precipitates the dye waves, and 
in all cases immediatelj^ attacks and decomposes the soap used ; 
the soda or potash with which the soap is made, leaves the oil and 
tallow with which it has been combined, and unites itself with 
the carbonates and sulphates of lime, thus forming an insoluable 




Fig. 33. Carbonizing Duster. 

lime soap, a compound perfectly useless as a scouring agent. This 
insoluble lime soap has often a most disastrous effect on goods 
which have to be dyed, causing spots and uneven dyeing, owing 
to the lime soap sticking to the fibers in the fabric, and in many 
cases being only partially removed by subsequent washing. It is 
clear that the soap can have no effect on wool until the lime in 
the water has finished its work, and is entirely united with the 



66 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 57 

alkali of the soap ; then the washing begins, but now the soap 
has to wash out, not only the original dirt from the wool, but also 
the lime soap, which has settled on it. 

Water Tests. Boil 1 gallon of water until only a small 
amount remains, add to this residue a few drops of muriatic acid. 
If the acid dissolves with effervescence the water is hard. Sul- 
phate of lime will remain. 

A drop or two of Gallic acid will detect iron in water that 
has been boiled in this manner, by giving it a black or bluish 
tinge. 

A pure white soap dissolved in alcohol in such proportion as 
to form a jelly, if placed in hard water will curdle, but in soft 
water will not curdle. 

The following tests may be made with a small quantity of 
clear boiled water ; divide the water into five parts for as mam^ 
tests : . 

1st. If lime is present, oxalate of ammonia (a few drops) 
will cause a white precipitate. The water should be heated in 
this test and should stand a short time after the acid is added. 

2d. Sulphuric acid is present if after using chloride of 
barium a white precipitate appears which will not be ledissolved 
by nitric acid. 

3d. Magnesia is present if by adding carbonate of soda, a 
white precipitate forms after standing for a short period. 

4th. Hydrochloric acid is present if by using nitrate of 
silver a white precipitate forms which will not be redissolved by 
nitric acid. 

A general method of softening water for wool scouring con- 
sists in collecting it in large tanks, when from two to six pounds 
of refined carbonate of potash per 1,000 gallons of water is added, 
which in a very short time precipitates the lime, and leaves the 
water ready for use. 

Sometimes the potash is added in the scouring machine pre- 
vious to introducing the soap into the solution, but the former 
seems to be the more preferable plan. A quarter of an ounce of 
powdered caustic soda per gallon is enough for the hardest water. 
It acts equally well when the water is cold, and rendering the 
lime insoluble, precipitates it along with any lime or magnesia 



67 



58 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 

salts that the water may contain ; it should, of course, be put in 
before the soap is added, or the benefit is lost. 

Neglect of all these principles will be found out in the after 
processes, such as dyeing, carding, spinning and finishing. If un- 
suitable soaps, oils, temperatures, both moist and dry, are used in 
absolute neglect and forgetfulness of the fact that the delicate 
fibres need all their poro.sity and original surface luster to receive 
various shades and delicate tints, the loss is incalculable. Under 
these circumstances, in the mill and factory it is not strange that 
certain goods come up wrong, with parts of the warp and filling 
not alike, or that certain shades are fugitive and change color, and 
everyone concerned blames everyone else in a vicious circle. 

Hydro=extractor. In many mills after scouring, the hydro- 
extractor is employed to extract the rinsing water from the wool. 
This machine is not used for raw stock in all mills, as the wool 
oftentimes goes direct from the sqeeze rolls of the last scouring 
bowl into the automatic feed of the dryer. 

A convenient form of extractor is shown in Fig. 34. Its 
operation is as follows : The wool is placed in the perforated 
basket. A, around which is a curb or outer casing of wrought iron, 
D. The basket is placed upon a spindle, C, and is actuated by the 
belt, M. It will be noticed that the cast iron bed plate of this 
machine, K, rests upon a stone or brick foundation. The lever, 
L, is used in starting or stopping the machine. The brake shoe, 
B, acting upon the pulley, N, is effective in stopping the basket 
after the stock has been extracted. The water is extracted from 
the wool by means of centrifugal force as the rapidly revolving 
basket throws the water off against the curb after which it travels 
down through pipes under the machine and thus escapes. 

The 36" basket runs at about 1,000 revolutions per minute, 
while a larger basket, 42" in diameter, is run at about 870 revolu- 
tions. Some 4,000 lbs. of stock can be run through the larger 
machine in a day of ten hours. 

Drying. The drying of wools after their leaving the scouring 
machines have met with more radical changes during the past 
twenty years than probably any other part of woolen yarn manu- 
facture. The table or screen dryer is still in use in many mills 
today, but has been largely superseded by machines of the con- 



68 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



59 



tinuous type. With the screen dryer, the material to be dried vv-as 
placed by hand and removed in the same manner, on a table cov- 
ered with a screen and shaped somewhat like the low pitched roof 
of a house. A blast of either hot or cold air was forced up 
through the mass of wool lying upon the table. Although num- 
bers of these machines are in use today in mills, the later types of 
machines will be given the preference in the following descriptions: 
As already shown in the ari-angement of scouring and drying- 




Fig. 34. Hydro-extractor. 

trains, dryers are frequently directly attached so that the doffer 
apron on the last bowl of the washer delivers the wool into the 
automatic feed of the dryer; so that there is no handling of wool 
necessary from the time it is placed in the duster or washer feed 
until it emerges from the dryer scoured, rinsed and dried. 

The One Apron Dryer. The one apron dryer is built in a 
number of sizes with capacities ranging from 1,200 to 12,000 
pounds of wool per day. In width the apron varies from 4 to 10 



69 



60 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



feet, according to the space and capacities required. The machine 
is built in sections or compartments each of which is 15 feet long. 
Fig. 35 shows a two section or 30 ft. dryer. Owing to this divi- 








C,J£^; 



sion of tlie machine into compartments the temperatures may be 
sub-divided. 

A cross section and plan of this drji-er is shown at Fig. 36. 
The compartments which contain the coils of pipe are shown at A 



70 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 61 

and B. Compartment A contains a coil of l|-inch pipe 1,092 ft. 
in length. The coil in compartment B is 819 ft. in length. In 
other words, in a two section machine about 60% of the total 
amount of pipe is in the first coil, and the balance or 40% in the 
second coil. This principle is carried out should the dryer be 
built 3, 4, or 5 sections in length so that the highest temperatui-e 
is presented to the wool at or near the feed end of the machine 
where the material to be dried contains the greatest amount of 
moisture, therefore resulting in less liability of injury to the 
stock. 

Fresh air is taken through the inlet C at the doffer end sec- 
tion opposite the last fan and the moist air is taken out at the feed 
end section opposite the first fan. (See Fig. 37 A). It will be 
observed from this that there is a continual current of air, moved 
by the fan C, passing alternately through the stock and the coil 
and moving iji a lielical direction (like the thread of a screw) 
constantly towajcl the feed end of the machine, forcing the mois- 
ture back and out through its proper opening as described above. 
This is a very essential point to the proper treatment of the stock 
to be dried. 

, Another point of vital importance is shown on this machine 
in the conduits, D, D', D", or by -passes, represented in Fig. 36. 
Reference to the arrows in the sectional elevation Fig. 37, shows the 
object of these conduits, marked in this instance B. The ordinary 
method of circulating the air in the one apron type of dryer 
is down through the stock, up through the coil and so on con- 
tinually with a certain amount of moist air to pass ont and a small 
amount of fresh air to enter. It is not good policy, of course, to 
take out all of the air which the fan circulates for the reason that 
the fresh air entering the machine is naturally at a low tempera- 
ture and although dry, does not have the ability to absorb as much 
moisture as hot air, even tliough containmg a small amount of 
moisture. Therefore, the otitlet has .9, regulating door admitting 
of a maximum or minimum amount of moist air to be discharged 
from the machine. 

The old method of circulating the air, namely, through the 
stock and through the coils alternately, while giving fair results is 
very materially improved upon by the method already cited of 



71 



62 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



—#40° 




H=> 



72 



WOOLEK AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



63 



passing a portion of the air over the stock, througli the conduit or 
by-pass, and then under the stock to the fan already referred to. 
This gives three directions of air circulating, namely, through, 
over and under the wool. It admits of a very free circulation, and 
will consequently dry a large amount of wool and move consider- 
able air without increasing the speed of the fans, which latter calls 
for an increased amount of power. 

The elevation seen at Fig. 34 shows the apron drums L and L' 
which carry the apron M. Above this are two pulleys, E and E', 
which drive the revolving tedders. The purpose of these tedders 
is to agitate the stock and turn it over on the apron, exposing a 



B- 



^t 



23^ 



X_ ^ 



^■.^^.,.^o^.,c^^ 






N 



:"-0 



QOOOOOOl 



ooooooo 
C»ooooo 
ooooooo 
ooodboo 
o'^ooooo 
ooooooo 
ooooooo 
ooobooo 
^t ooooooo 
ooooooo 
ooooooo 
ooooooo 



{f 



£^£ 



A 



Fig. 37. End View of One Apron Dryer. 



different surface to the action of the circulating air. An auto- 
matic feed is generally connected to the dryer and may be consid- 
ered a part of the machine, inasmuch -as it assists materially in the 
evenness with which the stock is dried. The side shaft F, run- 
ning along the side of the machine, drives both of the large 34" 
drums over which the wire cloth apron travels. An ordinary 
method is to drive only the doffer drum, allowing the apron to 
act as a power transmitter or belt to drive the first drum. In 
practice it has been found better to use the wire cloth aprons as 
conveyers of the stock only, rather than as transmitters of power. 
The stock in passing from the feed falls directly on to endless 



73 



64 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



wire apron and passes slowly into the drying compartment where 
it meets with the heated air circulated as heretofore described. 

The vertical belt G, drives the side shaft at the doffer end, 
and admits of a range of speeds sufficiently great to allow of rapid 
or extended drying as the stock may require. A shipper is also 
provided, shipping the belt, driving the 12" tight and loose pulleys 
H, on the bevelled gear shaft J, so that the dryer apron may be 
stopped while the fans continue to revolve. Thus, if necessary, 
the machine may be charged with wool, shut down and the stock 
continue to dry by the action of the currents of air from the fans. 




Fig. 38. Three Apron Dryer. 



The roll K at the doffer end driven from the main line over 
the idlers, acts as a beater or doifer to strip the dojifer drum and 
lofty the stock. 

The Multiple Apron Dryer. Another type of dryer is that in 
which the wool or other material to be dried passes at least three 
times through the drying compartments, and at the end of each 
passage as it falls to the next apron below, is turned over, present- 
ing its other surface to the action of the circulating air. This pre- 
cludes the necessity of using revolving tedders or kickers. It 
also allows of a greater capacity machine in a given length and 



74 



WOOLEJN A:N^D worsted spinning. 65 

width, although, of course, the machine requires more height than 
the one apron type. 

A view of this dryer is shown at Fig. 38, while the elevation 
and ground plan at Fig. 39 give a comprehensive view of its work- 
ing parts. The wool to be dried is placed in the hopper of the 
automatic feed in the usual manner, that is, by hand or from the 
doffer apron of the last bowl. It is elevated by the spiked apron of 
the feed, and doffed off the rear portion of the same by a doffer roll 
directly on to the top traveling wire apron A, which conveys it to 
the doffer apron on to the next lower apron B, placed directly beneath 
the first, and which carries it back to the feed end of the machine. 
At this point it drops to the bottom apron C and travels again to 
the doffer end of the machine, and on to a small apron D, which 
delivers it away from the machine into a truck, sheet or suitable 
receptacle, but preferably into an automatic conveying system. 

The coil boxes containing the steam pipe and fans are placed 
along the sides of the drying compartments at E and E^. The coils 
are built above the fans, the air being circulated alternately up 
through the wool and down through the coils as shown in Fig. 40, 
a portion of the moist air escaping at the doffer end of the, coil 
boxes. Thus as in the one apron dryer, the air travels from the 
dry to the moist wool. The fan is shown at A. These dryers may 
also be run successfully with the currents of air going in the other 
direction, that is to say, sucking down through the stock instead 
of blowing up through it; in which latter case, however, the inlets 
and outlets are placed in different positions. 

Like the preceding dryer this machine is built in various 
sizes with capacities ranging from 2,000 to 15,000 lbs. of dry 
wool per day, it of course, being understood that fine, close lying 
wool will not dry as rapidly as coarse and lofty stock, for the reason 
that the air cannot penetrate the mass of fibres as readily. 

The capacity of a dryer may be increased by the addition of 
steam pipes, and also by increasing the speeds of the fans. This 
also depends somewhat upon the condition of the wool going to 
the dryer. Wool coming from a hydro extractor contains ordi- 
narily from 5 to 10 % less moisture than wool coming from a set 
of press rolls from the wool washing machine, and will conse- 
quently dry much more rapidly. The disadvantages, however, of 



75 



m 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 




■oo 




76 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



67 



the extra labor required in operating the extractor separately, is 
generally considered to be more than offset by the automatic 
arrangement where the wool passes directly from the washer, 
through the press rolls of the same, and into the automatic feed 
of the dryer. 

This dryer has change gears allowing different speeds for slow 
or quick drying wools. By arrangement of cone pulleys tlie 
automatic feed can be made to admit a thin or thick layer of 
stock. 

Fig. 41 shows another multiple dryer containing five aprons, 



^-booooool 



ffl^ 



ooooooo 
ooooooo 
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ooooooo 
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o(yooooo 
ooooooo 
ooooooo 
ooooooo 
ooooooo 
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ooooooo 
ooooooo 
ooooooo 
ooooooo 



A- 



bLM 



1 



N 



X N 



i 



i 



:h. 



// 



p 



p^f gt / 2 



; 



/ 



y 



7^^ 



/ 



Is 



Fig. 40. End View of Three Apron Dryer. 

but inasmuch as the arrangement is very similar to that of the 
three apron dryer, no explanation is necessary^ 

SHRINKAGE. 

One of the most important features in buying wool, and one 
which is self-evident after it has been cleaned, is the matter of 
shrinkage. As before shown, all wools are not clean when 
sheared and after the cleansing process has removed all traces of 
grease, sand, shives and other extraneous matter, a marked dif- 
ference is found in the weight of the wool. The difference in 
weight between unscoured wool and the scoured stock is known 



77 



68 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 







ba 
S 



78 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 69 

as Shrinkage. Almost all wool buyers are expert in determining 
by the " Feel " and general appearances of the wool under considera- 
tion, the percent of shrinkage within one or two points. This, 
of course, is the result of years of practice. The shrinkage of a 
lot of wool under the circumstances is, of course, an important 
factor in determining its value and price. For example : If a 
lot of wool costing 25 cents per lb. shrinks 25%, the cost to the 
buyer on the "clean" basis will be 33i cents. 

Wool at 25 cents per lb. and 25 % shrinkage ; consequently 
-J-^-^ of a lb. of scoured stock will cost 25 cents, and 1 lb. on this 
basis will cost 25 ~ jifo- ^J cancellation the problem appears 
as follows : -. 

100 X 25 

yF = 33|- cents per lb. 

When the manufacturer of today buys wool for the con- 
sumption of his plant, he is generally not only careful in his 
selection, but has a sample bag sent to the mill for an exact test 
before clinching his bargain. This sample lot of wool, consisting 
probably of several hundred lbs., is carefully weighed and care- 
fully scoured and dried by itself; then weighed again. The 
result is, of course, an exact test and enables him to determine 
accurately the " clean " price of the entire lot of wool consisting 
frequently of from 100,000 to 500,000 lbs. 

In order that the student may obtain a general idea of wool 
shrinkages, the following table is appended. This table, in a 
general way, follows the list of wools which commences on 
page 7 : 



79 



70 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING. 



REMARKS. 



APPROXIMATE SHRINKAGE. 



Fleeces. 
Bright Wools. 
Territory. 
Lake & Georgia. 
Montevideo. 
Crossbrecls. 
Cordova. 
Alpaca. 
Irish. 
Canadian. 
China Wools. 
Skin Wools. 
Khorrassan 
Spring. 
Autumns and 
Trans Caspians. 
Aleppo. 
Owassi. 
Karrad) . 
Angora Wools. 
Scotch Carpet. 
Donskoi. 
China Carpet. 
White Bokhara 
and White 
Turkistan. 
Mohair. 
Mohair. 
Camel's Hair. 



Often spoken of as Washed Fleeces. 
With the exception of Kentucky. 



Will range from 



Filling. 



Washed. 
Washed. 
Washed. 



Washed. 
Combing. 



Turkey. 

Domestic. 

Both Russian and China. 



About 50 to 52% 

" 43 " 45% 

" 65% 

" 40% 

" 55% 

" :«to35% 

" 50 % 

" 15 to 20% 

" 20 " 25% 

" 18 " 20% 

" 40 " 45% 

" 15 " 20% 

" 30 to 32% 

" 25% 

" 15 to 20% 

" 25 to .36% 

" 25 to 30% 

" 50 to 52% 

" 25 to 35% 

•' 10 to 12% 

" 35% 



32 to 35% 

12 to 14% 

25% 

30 to 33%. 



80 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED 

SPINNING 

PART 11 



CARDING 



The wool, after being thoroughly M^ashed and dried, must 
pass through several preparatory operations before reaching the 
first breaker card. The number and order of these operations 
vary according to the class of the wool and the use to which it is 
to be applied. 

"Wools will be treated under two general headings as follows: 
(a) Wools suitable for worsted yarns. 
(h) Wools suitable for woolen yarns. 

These two classes may be subdivided into various grades ac- 
cording to the quality and condition of the wool and the require- 
ments of the fabric for which it is to be used. Long staple wool 
for worsted yarns does not receive such a large amount of 
"working" as the shorter wools, for length of staple is of greater 
importance, in some worsted yarns, than the removal of foreign 
matter. Short staple wools for woolen yarns may be teased and 
opened Mnthout serious injury, as there is not so much danger of 
reducing the average length of staple; in fact, there are instances 
where the presence of excessively long fibers is detrimental to 
the production of a good quality of yarn. 

There are, however, other differences between wool and 
worsted besides length of staple, which are caused by the action of 
the machinery peculiar to each process; in fact, it is possible to 
use one half of a bag of wool for worsted yarn and the other half 
for woolen yarn. These differences will be brought oiTt and em- 
phasized in their logical order. 

Teasing. The condition of the wool after being scoured 
and dried is such that it ought to be subjected to some process 



83 



72 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




Fig. 43. Sectional View 
of Teaser. 



which will disentangle the staples and thus facilitate the work on 
the first breaker card. 

The illustration shown in Fig. 42 represents the principle on 
which all machines for this purpose are built. The wool is fed 
into the machine by a feed sheet and is caught by the teeth on the 
large cylinder A, which, revolving at a speed of four to five hun- 
dred revolutions per minute, carries the wool 
against the three small "workers" B, which 
revolve in the opposite direction to the large 
cylinder, or are stationary. If properly set, 
the teeth of the large cylinder pass between 
those of the rolls and thus effectually open 
the wool 

While this machine should combine the 
operations of opening the wool and blowing 
out the foreign matter, in many cases it does 
not properly do either, as the teeth are set 
indifferently, and the wool is carried through 
too easily. 

If the rolls 13 revolve, they should work into each other as 
well as into the main cylinder, being set so that the teeth will 
overlap about one inch. The cylinder and rolls are enclosed in a 
strong sheet metal caae, the mechanism being driven by gears. 
The broken line represents a grid which assists in cleaning the 
wool, the dust falling into the compartment underneath. 

The above explains the process of opening the wool and while 
there are m.any devices for accomplishing the desired end, all rely 
upon the above principle for their value. It is not often that 
wools designed for worsted yarns need be passed through an op- 
eration of this kind ; still there are cases of hard and felted wools 
which are more or less difficult of separation, which it would not be 
correct to subject to the process of carding before being opened, as 
the card clothing would inevitably suffer. Such wools are there- 
fore passed through a machine for the purpose of opening them. 
When this process is employed on wool for worsted yarns, the 
speed of the cylinder should be reduced so that the operation will 
be much gentler on the fibers. 

Burring. Some wools contain a large quantity of burrs 



84 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



73 



which become entangled in the fleece. These burrs cling tena- 
ciously to the wool and as their presence during the carding oper- 
ation will cause serious waste and rapidly reduce the efficiency of 
the card clothing, a burr picker is sometimes used to remove them. 

The illustration at Fig. 43 represents a typical burr picker. 
The wool is fed onto a feed apron which carries it forward to the 
feed rolls, which in turn deliver it to a picking cylinder. The 
latter, in connection with the burr cylinders, work the wool, the 
burr being knocked into the burr box by the burr guard. The 
wool is removed from the burr cylinders by a brush. 

For wools containing large quantities of small burrs the chem- 
ical process of carbonization is generally used, but for large burrs 



Brush 





Screen^ ^'Pickrnq 
^ Cvjl. 



1. 



Fig. 43. Sectional View of Burr Picker. 

the method of extracting by a burr picker is preferable as it pre- 
serves the natural strength and qualities of the fiber. 

While many manufacturers claim that the operation of re- 
moving the burrs by the picking operation is very destructive to 
the fiber, it is very probable that the breakage caused by the burr 
picker would very largely take place on the first breaker cards, so 
the breakage on the latter is greatly reduced by the action of the 
burr picker. 

Oiling. After wool has been scoured and dried, the fibers 
lack adhesiveness owing to the natural lubricant of the wool being 
removed in these processes. Hence, a large quantity of the fibers 



85 



74 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



would, if not lubricated, make waste or flyings, Oil is applied to 
the wool to minimize the production of waste and also to soften 
and impart smoothness to the fibers. 

Before the introduction of automatic machines for this pur- 
pose, the amount of oil necessary for carding was put on the wool 
through the simple medium of a garden watering can, with coarse 
rose or T spout. In some cases the oil was measured but quite 
as often the amount for any given quantity of wool was guessed. 
Probably the guessing was almost as efficient as the measuring, 
for as soon as it was oiled the wool was put into boxes or trucks 
in which it was taken to the cards. It was quite impossible for 




Fig. 44. Rotary Brush Oiling Machine. 

the oil to permeate the whole load in the short time before the 
wool was fed the cards and it may be safely surmised that half the 
fibers went through the cards without a particle of oil to lubricate 
them, while many others had so much oil that they would stick 
together and to the card clothing. 

One of the simplest methods in use at present is the rotary 
brush motion (Fig. 44) in which the circular brush picks up oil 
from the trough and, as the bristles bend against the knife and 
spring out straight in passing it, they throw the oil in a fine spi'ay 
onto the wool. 

The oil tank has a guage glass and a regulating valve, so that 
the amount of oil running into the trough in a given time can be 
accurately measured and regulated. The oil spray ceases the mo- 
ment the rolls stop because the brush is driven from the roll shaft. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 75 

A connection is also made to the valve of the tank, which auto- 
matically stops the flow of oil when the machine is stopped. 

If the sight glass is plainly graduated, it is very easy to reg- 
ulate the amount of oil applied to any pile of wool, and as the oil 
is always falling in an almost invisible spray, every lock of wool 
receives its share and goes to the card in the best possible condi- 
tion. 

Different mills have various methods of oiling stock but the 
above is, in the estimation of the writer, one of the best methods. 
There are three essential things to be kept in mind and if these 
are followed carefully the method of application is of little 
moment. 

(a) The amount of oil applied must be carefully measured, 
recorded, and regulated while the machine is running. 

(5) The oil must be finely divided when applied to the wool. 

(c) The oil must be applied evenly to every part of the 
batch. 

Any system which fulfills these conditions, and is carefully 
handled, will produce the best results at the smallest expense. 

Mixing. The intermixing of different grades of wool, or of 
wool and cheaper fibers, such as cotton, mungo, shoddy, etc., is 
practiced to a great extent in almost every woolen mill in existence, 
and seems to be increasing rather than diminishing. The princi- 
pal objects to be obtained in intermixing such materials are the 
production of special effects and more often a reduction in the cost 
of the yarn, and, therefore, in the cloth. Perhaps in no instance 
will the cloth be improved in texture or enhanced in value by the 
presence of these fibers in the stock previous to the first carding 
operation. On the contrary, the fabrics are generally low in qual- 
ity, in consequence of the yarns employed being a composition of 
remanufactured material and wool. 

There are cases, as in the mixture of silk and wool, where the 
object is to obtain a better thread which will add to the appearance 
and value of the woven fabric in which it is employed. This, 
however, is an exception, as generally speaking, the object of mix- 
ing is to reduce the cost of the goods. It must not be supposed 
that the usefulness of mixing is limited to reducing the cost of the 
yarns, for it is invaluable in producing combinations of several 



87 



76 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

colors or shades of tlie same color. It thus affords ample scope 
for the origination of novelties in the shape of mixture yarns for 
cheviots and other classes of goods of a similar character. 

Such fabrics derive their special features from the nature of 
the yarns used in their production, and the yarns which owe their 
characteristics to the mixing process, for the various colors contri- 
bute, according to their intensity, to give tone to the spun thread. 
Therefore, in this preliminary process of cloth designing, there is 
considerable opportunity for making not only cheap yarn, but at 
the same time a thread which will be valuable in the production 
of new styles. 

A simple illustration which will clearly show the value of 
mixing or blending is as follows : Assume that it is required to 
make three different gray mixture yarns. As black and white, 
when mixed with each other, produce gray, it will only be neces- 
sary to blend, card, and spin varying quantities of black and white 
wool together according to the tone of the mixture yarn required. 
Thus, two pounds of black wool mixed with two pounds of white 
would give a medium gray: while three pounds of black mixed 
with one pound of white would give very dark gray. If a light 
gray was required, it could very easily be produced by mixing three 
pounds of white wool with one pound of black. In practice other 
colors would be added in small quantities to give a better appear- 
ance to the blend. 

These illustrations are simply given to show the effect of 
mixtures. It will be readily seen that there is no limit to the 
variety of shades which may be obtained by combining several 
colors in different proportions. The different colors used in pre- 
paring a blend may be of different materials or different grades of 
wool. 

As the object of blending is to intermix the several fibers so 
thoroughly that they cannot be distinguished from each other in 
the yarn, much care must be taken in preparing the mixture for 
the machines in which the yarn construction is performed. Mix- 
ing does not change the individual characteristics of the fibers, as 
each retains its own color and properties, yet the amalgamation is 
so complete that a perfectly uniform mixture is the result. 

In preparing the mixing, the component parts must be well 



88 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



77 



cleaoed and opened before entering the mixing room, A common 
practice is to spread the material on the floor in layers of the' 
various grades. Thus, if the mix consists of different classes of 
wool of the same shade, a foundation some few inches in thickness 
is distributed evenly on the floor. A layer of the second grade of 
stock is then spread over the first layer, and so on. If different 
colors are being mixed, the process is the same, the thickness of 
the individual layer varying according to the quantity of each color 
required to form the proper mixture. 

There is a difference of opinion as to whether it is best to oil 
each layer separately, or to mix the several grades together and oil 




Fig. 45. Fearnought Mixing Picker. 

afterwards. This depends a great deal upon the nature of the ma- 
terial being mixed. In some instances one method would be better, 
and in some cases the other. 

In cases where the cotton forms one of the ingredients of the 
mixture, it is well to prevent oil from getting on this fiber. In 
such instances, the cotton is first spread on the floor, the other in- 
gredients being spread on the cotton, and oil applied to the top of 
the bed. 

To more perfectly mix the material and thus begin the oper- 
ation which is flnished on the card, the mixture is generally passed 
through a fearnought or mixer picker, such as is shown at Fig. 45. 



80 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



Probably the latter name has been applied to this machine on ac- 
count of the peculiar shape of the teeth inserted in the main cyl- 
inder. These teeth are slightly bent in the form of a bow and 
gradually taper from the base to a point. The main cylinder is 
about forty-five inches in diameter and makes from one hundred 
fifty to two hundred revolutions per minute. 

The smaller cylinders marked C are called workers and assist 
in mixing the material. The stock, after having been spread on 
the feed apron, is passed forward to the main cylinder B by the 
feed roll when the workers engage the matted locks and thoroughly 
intermix the fibers. The fan draws the wool from the cylinder and 
throws it out of the machine. In order to prevent waste caused 
by loose fibers flying oflE the cylinder, when in operation, the 
machine is encased by sheet iron. 

WORSTED CARDING 

Carding is the first of seven mechanical processes, known col- 
lectively as combing, by which raw wool, after it is cleansed of 
grease and dirt, is converted into tops or balls for the drawing 
processes. The theoretical uses of carding may be classified under 
three heads, as follows: 

(a) Those which are common to both woolen and worsted 
processes. 

(^) Those which are peculiar to worsted carding. 
((?) Those which are peculiar to woolen carding. 

The primary object of all carding is to begin the combing 
process by separating the fibers one from another; second, to ar- 
range the fibers in a continuous sliver, all parts of which are equal 
in weight and thickness and so blended that all parts contain fibers 
of every length and quality; and third, to remove as many knots, 
seeds and burrs as possible. 

In worsted carding the object is, as far as possible, to comb 
the wool and lay the fibers as straight and as nearly parallel as 
possible, making a sliver in which every fiber retains the greatest 
possible length, and in which bulk is of little importance in com- 
parison to length. 

In woolen carding the objects are to cross and interlace the 
separate fibers as much as possible to form a bulky sliver; to blend 



00 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 79 

fibers of different length and quality; and when blending colors, to 
mix the fibers so thoroughly that every part of the sliver will be 
the same shade. For woolen carding long fibers are of no special 
value and in some cases may be harmful. 

The means of obtaining these results may be classified under 
six different heads, as follows: 

(«) The direction in which the wire points, 

(5) The number of wires per inch. 

(c) The size of the rolls. 

(^d) The relative direction of the surface motion of every 
pair of rolls which work together. 

((?) The surface speed of the rolls. 

(/") The distance of the rolls one from another. 
As far as possible these six heads w^ill be treated separately, 
but as most of them are closely connected with each other, the se- 
quence of the following paragraphs is not entirely in accordance 
with the above table. 

Before considering the intricate arrangement of wires involved 
in carding, we ought to know what objects are attained by the 
process in practice, and the essentials of good carded sliver. If a 
large lot of yarn is to be quite uniform in weight, and even 
throughout, six things are necessary in the combed sliver, as 
follow^s : 

(a) The sliver must be as near the original length of the 
wool as possible, and must not contain much short wool or noil 
knots. 

(5) The sliver must be uniform in weight; that is to say, 
ten yards from any one part must weigh exactly the same as ten 
yards from any other part. 

(c) Long and short fibers must be blended uniformly, as 
before explained. 

(d) There must be no lumps or thick places due to 
piecingSj etc. 

((s) All fibers must be as nearly parallel as possible. 
(y) There must be no burrs or vegetable fiber. 
Of these heads the carder is responsible for a, b, d, andy. 
Under the first heading is involved all that is essential in the 
carding process proper. If the weight of the carded sliver varies 



01 



80 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



from day to day, it is almost impossible for the comber to make 
tlie weight of the comb slivers uniform. To insure the greatest 
degree of uniformity the wool is put on the feed apron by auto- 
matic machines of which the Bramwell of to-day represents the 
highest type. These feeds are so nearly correct that the output of 
a card will vary very little in a whole day's work. 

It is impossible to overestimate the necessity of care in every 
detail of the carding process. Attention to size length and grind- 




46. Enlarged Sectional View of Wool Fiber. 

ing of the wire, and care in the adjustment of the various rolls, in 
relation to one another, for every different class of wool, will repay 
the time expended upon them, for no staple can go through a card 
without some of its parts being reduced in length, and if the work 
be done carelessly the fibers may be so broken that the average 
length is seriously reduced. Length of staple is all important in 
worsted spinning, and it is evident that no amount of care in the 
after processes of combing can remedy the damage. 

Theory. The earliest form of carding by hand is a perfect 
illustration of the theories on which the huge modern worsted 

cards work and forms a juost fitting 
introduction to this subject Any 
one can perform the experiment of 
pulling hairs from his own head and 
notice in which direction it moves, 
or which end comes out first when 
rubbed between the finger and 
Fig. 47. Card Clothing. thumb. Theoretically, wool will act 

in the same manner. Let Fig. 46 represent a single wood fiber, 
and it is clear that if placed between two plain surfaces having a 
reciprocating motion, it would always tend to move towards the 
left, which is the root end of the fiber. 

Unfortunately, it is not clear as yet what part this property 
in wool plays in the carding process, or whether it plays any part 
at all, for instead of wool being rubbed by plain surfaces it is 




92 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 81 

treated by an infinite number of fine wires, the points of whicli are 
inclined in one direction or the other, and the direction in which 
these wires are inclined exercises the most powerful influence on 
the motion of the wool through the machine. 

Card Clothing (Fig. 47) consists of leather, or a woven 
foundation of cotton, covered by a thin layer of vulcanized rubber, 
and through this foundation 
the wires are inserted, bent 
to a uniform angle, and all 
inclined in one direction. 

, , Fig. 48. Hand Card. 

The length of the wire is usu- 
ally about three eighths of an inch, but the number of points and 
the thickness or size of the wire vary, in a card for fine wool, from 
100 to 500 points per square inch (exclusive of the rolls covered 
with angular wire). 

The old hand cards consisted simply of two flat boards eight 
by five inches, fitted with handles and covered with card clothing 
as shown in Fig. 48. If a lock of wool were placed between two 





Fig. 49. Hand Cards, Wires Pointing in Opposite Directions. 

of these cards as shown in Fig. 49 and they were moved backward 
and forward parallel to each other, each fiber would be quickly 
held at some point along its length by one or more wires on one 
of the cards, and the teeth of the other card must then of necessity 
be drawn through the loose portions of the staple, separating the 
different hairs from each other, or combing them in a direction 
parallel with the line of motion. 

If the staple is held by its extreme points, the wires of the 
other card would comb it from end to end so thoroughly that no 
after process would be necessary, if the wool could -be removed in 
this straight condition from the card, but, unfortunately, in prac- 
tice the wool is held at some point between the two ends, and as it 
hangs in the form of a loop on one of the cards, the teeth of the 



88 



82 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

other can only comb the two loose ends, and cannot open the mid- 
dle of the staple until it has been moved from that position. 

When the fiber is in this looped condition, there is the great- 
est danger of breakage, and if two or more staples become felted 
in washing or from any other cause, there may be two looped ends 
lying in opposite directions. When the cards move one on the 
other, the fibers of one staple must give way and be broken. This 
is only the case when the wires point in opposite directions. 

When the wires, point in the same direction, as in Fig. 50, 
the action is entirely different. The motion continues exactly 
as before, but the wires point in the same direction. If C be 
moved toward the teeth of D, D will hold all the wool, and the 




Fig. 50. Hand Cards, Wires Pointing in the Same Direction. 

teeth of C will slip easily out of it. As C again comes forward 
empty, the first rows of teeth will clear nearly all the wool out of 
D and if a few strokes be repeated, it will empty all the teeth of 
D and the carded wool will be clear of both. 

These two motions of the hand cards illustrate the action of 
every roll on a modern carding machine (except the fancy which 
is really a kind of brush), but because the motion of the rolls is 
continuous and rotary, instead of reciprocating, there are different 
rolls set apart for each of the two processes affected by the hand 
cards in their two different positions. 

The illustration shown at Fig. 51 has been prepared to show 
the rolls which perform the operations, formerly done on the old 
hand cards. 

The wool is fed to the large cylinder by R, and is carried to 
the worker W, w^hich takes the wool from the large cylinder. The 
small roll marked S strips the wool from W and returns it to the 
large cylinder to be carried to the next pair of worker and stripper 
rolls. After passing the last pair of these rolls the wool is raised 



94 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



83 



on the wires of the large cylinder by the fancy F and is easily 
removed by the doffer D. 

This diagram should be studied carefully, especial attention 
being given to the direction in which every roll turns, and the 
direction in which the wire on every roll points. 

Every roll of a card which "works" the wool is being contin- 
ually filled by the cylinder on which it works, and as it would get 
very much overloaded after its first revolution, a stripping roll is 
provided to remove the carded wool from the worker. The angle 
of the clothing of the worker in relation to the wire points of the 
cylinder is exactly that of two hand cards when in their first posi- 




Fig. 51. Diagram Showing Parts of Card. 

tion, while the motion of the stripper and the set of its wire makes 
the action of the stripper and worker exactly like that of the hand 
cards in the second position, the stripper taking away the carded 
wool and depositing it again on the cylinder. 

There is a hard and fast rule for all stripping rolls, which is 
as follows: They must move with the point first faster than the 
roll they clear. In the case of the strippers proper they over-run 
their workers by thirty times their surface traverse. 

The actual direction in which two worker rolls revolve is not 
essential in the theory of carding; but in order to get any working 
or combing between two rolls, the wires must be inclined point to 
point, and one must move points first across the points of the 
other. That is to say, if two rolls A and B (Fig. 52) were revolving 
point to point, both making thirty inches surface traverse per 



95 



84 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




second, they would both be doing exactly the same amount of 
combing as if the motion of B (Fig. 53) were increased to ninety 
inches per second, and A were allowed to retreat heel first at its old 
speed of thirty inches. In both cases the points of B would be 
running past the points of A.at sixty inches per 
second. It is on this principle that the working 
power of all rolls must be considered, and in 
order to get their relative efficiency per inch of 
M'idth in the machine, the speed must be multi- 
plied by the number of wires per inch linear, 
counted across the machine. This calculation 
will show the number of Avires moved through 
any portion of the wool, one inch wade, or the 
equivalent number of inches which one pin 
would travel to the same amount of work. Other 
conditions being equal, the roll which has most 
Fig. 52. points per inch will hold the staples most firmly, 

and the roll with the fewest points will comb the free ends. 

Table 1 and Figs. 54 and 55 show the gearing and dimensions 
of a "fine" worsted card of the type now most generally used. 
Both cylinders are considered to be running at 100 R. P. M. 
Any alteration of this speed would alter the speed 
of every roll in the machine in exactly relative 
proportion; as every roll is driven from one or the 
other cylinder. 

Wherever the figure 100 occurs first in the 
calculation in Table 1 the sizes of all gears and 
pulleys are given in the line of fractions, but in 
rolls driven from the first licker, 8^ is taken as 
the unit, and -|, the speed of the feed roll, is the 
unit for the apron and automatic feed pan. The 
speeds calculated in Table 1 are used to obtain the 
results shown in Tables 3 and 4. The clothing 
for two qualities is shown in Table 2. ^ig- ^^^ 

The speeds of a woolen card are given at Table 5 to show the 
difference in- the two systems at equivalent stages in the two proc- 
esses, and their relative efficiency for producing a sliver in which 
all the fibers are as nearly as possible of their original lengths 




yt) 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



85 



TABLE 1 
Speeds of a Fine Worsted Card 



ROLLS 


UNIT OP 
SPEED 


GEARS 


•REV. 
PER MIN. 


INCHES 
PER MIN. 


A. Cylinders 


100 




100 





B. Doffers 


100 


7 X 25 
>^ 16 X 250 


4-'' 


550 


C. Fancys 


100 


X ^ 

X rj 


514? 


— 


D. Strippers 


100 


X ^ 

^ 13 


276i| 


— 


E. Workers 


100 


,7 X 25 X 10 
^ 16 X 250 X 13 


3A 


— 


F. 4th Lickers 


100 


X ^ 
^ 12 


100 


— 


G. 3rd " 


100 


X ^ 
^ 24 


50 


— 


H. 2nd " 


100 


,,12x 40 
^24X 160 


12V 


— 


J. 1st " 


100 


.,12x 26 
^24x 156 


8.^ 


— 


K. dth Divider 


8} 


X ^ 


U 


— 


L. 3rd " 


^ 


X ^ 
X 13 


3ii 


— 


M. 2nd " 


8i 


X ^ 


3i 


— 


N. 1st " 


8i 


X ^ 


3^ 


— 


0, Feed Roll 


8^ 


26 26 25 
>^156Xl56X 28 


f 


— 


P. " " Clearer 


8i 


26 26 74 
>^ 156^156^ 28 


# 


— 


Q. Feed Apron 


1 


^,28x21x31 44 
X 25 25 


U| 


— 


R. Pan of Automatic 
. Feed 

S. Output of Doffing 


2 

■5 


,, 28 X 11 616 
^ 25 X 13 ~ 2925 


2 

9 


— 


Drawing Off 


100 


7 X 25 X Six 31 




601 


• Rolls 




^ . 16 X 20 







Every one knows that if long and slightly matted hair be 
combed rapidly with a fine comb, the teeth will catch in the inter- 
lacings and tighten them until they become knots, so that a large 
number of hairs will be broken or pulled out by the roots. But if 
a very coarse comb is first used and slowly drawn many times 
through the same head of hair, the fibers will be gradually sep- 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



^'^-^ ■ u--%N CO >\ 



;o 



\',^N2J 



'=-.-^^^ 



!j O il 



c 



(JJ 



c 



cr 




5" 



II II II II II II II 



-*^ 



0® 



63 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



87 



arated until the work may be finished with a fine comb, and a per- 
fect straightening and separating of every fiber from its neighbor 




will result, with little or no damag-e to either fibers or locks. 

It is exr':!tly in this manner that a worsted card should be 



99 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



made to treat wool, if the greatest possible length is to be main- 
tained, and it is in the special arrangements to attain this end that 
a worsted card differs from a woolen card. 

The table of speeds shows that the feed rolls move so slowly, 
in both worsted and woolen cards, that they may be considered as 
holding the wool stationary, and the teeth are so far apart that they 
might be almost left out of consideration as an opening process, as 
they traverse only -^ inches per second and have but six teeth per 
inch. How widely the woolen and worsted processes differ at all 
working points except the first will be seen from Tables 3 and 5. 

TABLE 2 

Card Clothing for Two Qualities of Worsted, all Hardened and Teni= 
pered Steel Wire, Vulcanized Fillet 



T?nT,T,Cl 


FOR 60's to 


70's QUALITY 


FOR 48' 


3 TO 56-s QUALITY 




DIA. 


WIRE 


COUNTS 


CROWN 


WIRE 


COUNTS 


CROWN 


1st Licker 


30 


18X24 


30 


6 


Garnet 








2nd " 


26 


29 


90 


9 


24 


60 


6 


3rd " 


26 


30 


100 


10 


26 


80 


8 


4th " 


26 


32 


115 


10 


30 


100 


10 


1st Divider 


20 


25 


70 


6 


24 


60 


6 


2nd " 


16 


29 


90 


10 


26 


80 


8 


3rd " 


16 


31 


110 


10 


29 


90 


9 


4th " 


16 


32 


120 


10 


31 


110 


10 


1st Cylinder 


50 


34 


130 


12 


31 


110 


10 


1st Workers 


12 


34 


135 


12 


32 


■ 115 


10 


1st Strippers 


7 


31 


110 


10 


27 


80 


8 


1st Fancy 


12 


31 


70 


8 


29 


60 


7 


1st Doffer 


40 


35 


140 


12 


32 


115 


10 


Angle Stripper 


7 


31 


120 


10 


30 


no 


10 


2nd Cylinder 


50 


35 


150 


13* 


33 


125 


12 


2ud Workers 


12 


35 


150 


131 


34 


130 


12 


2nd Strippers 


7 


32 


115 


10 


30 


90 


9 


2nd Fancy 


12 


33 


90 


8 


31 


70 


7 


2nd Doffer 


40 


36 


155 


14 


34 


130 


12 



Feed rolls 6 pins per inch. Counts and crowns are a method of 
counting which survives from old hand carding days. Counts are the 
number of points in 5 inches measuring around a roll, and crown is the 
number of staples (each having two points) in one inch across the roll. 
For instance, a cylinder of 130 counts and 12 crown will therefore have 
130-5 or 26 points per inch lengthwise, and 12X2 or 24 points crown 
across the roll. The wire number is the size by wire gauge. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



89 



TABLE 3 
Worsted Card 





SPEED 




INCHES 








ROLLS 


FROM REV. 
TABLE 1 


DIAMETER 


PER 
SECOND 


WIRE 


COUNTS 


CROWN 


1st Licker 


8i 


30 


13 


*18X24 


— 





2nd " 


12i 


26 


17 


24 


60 


6 


3rd " 


50 


. 26 


68 


26 


80 


8 


4th " 


100 • 


26 


136 


30 


100 


10 


1st Divider 


3J 


20 


3i 


24 


60 


6 


2nd " 


31 


16 


3 


25 


80 


8 


3rd " 


Qii 

"IS 


16 


31 


29 


90 


9 


4th " 


u 


16 


31 


31 


110 


10 


1st Cylinder 


100 


50 


262 


31 


110 


10 


1st Workers 


^13 


12 


2i 


32 


115 


10 


1st Strippers 


276 


7 


101 


27 


80 


8 


1st Fancy 


514 


12 


323 


29 


60 


7 


1st Doffer 


43 


40 


9^ 


32 


115 


10 


2nd Cylinder 


100 


50 


262 


33 


125 


12 


2nd Workers 


3tV 


12 


2{ 


34 


130 


12 


2nd Strippers 


276 


7 


101 


30 


90 


9 


2nd Fancy 


514 


12 


323 


31 


70 


7 


2nd Doffer 


43 


40 


9 


34 


130 


12 



* 18 X 24 wire is diamond point. 



TABLE 4 
Relative Efficiency of Working Poi nts of a Worsted Card 



No. of 
Work- 



Points 



Between 



j 1st Licker 
] 1st Divider 
j 2nd Licker 
\ 2nd Divider 
j 3rd Licker 
( 3rd Divider 
j 4th Licker 
] 4th Divider 
j 1st Cylinder 
I 1st Workers 
j 1st Cylinder 
} 1st Doffers . 
j 2nd Cylinder 
\ 2nd Workers 
\ 2nd Cylinder 
} 2nd Doffer 



Surface 

Traverse ins. 

Per Second 



13 
13i 
17 
3 
68 

3f 
186 

Si 
262" 

2 
262 

9 
262 

2 
262 

9 



Direction of 
Surface Tra- 
verse at Point 
of Contact 



Opposite 



Same 



Equiva- 
lent of 
Speed 


Points Per 

In. in One 

Row 


16i 


12 


20 


12 


71 


16 


139 


20 


260 


20 


253 


20 


260 


24 


253 


24 



Combing 
EfSciencV 



198 
240 
1136 
2780 
5200 
5060 
6240 
6072 



lOl 



90 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



If we regard the feed rolls simply as a means of supplying 
wool at a given rate from the first licker, and leave it out of our 
calculations as an opening process (because the teeth are so coarse 
that they only serve to separate staple from staple and not fiber 
from fiber), we find that there is no work done by any of the rolls 
of a woolen card (because there is no case of point meeting point) 
until the unopened staples are rushed by the breast, at a speed of 
seventy-eight inches per second, onto the wires of the first worker. 
As the worker retreats three inches per second in the same di- 
rection as the breast, there is a working efliciency of seventy-five 
inches between the two rolls, and if the breast has fourteen pins 
per linear inch, we may call the combing efliciency of the breast 
workers as 75 X 14 = 1050. The only possible result of such 
severe treatment is obvious, for it is certain that something must 
give way. However, the amount of breakage can only be approx- 
imately estimated. 

TABLE 5 
Speeds of Woolen Card 



RoUs 



Licker 

Angle 

Breast 
" WorkeTS 
" Strippers 

1st Cylinder 



2nd Cylinder 



Workers 
Strippers 

Fancy 

Angle 

Strippers 
Dofler 

Workers 
Strippers 
Fancy 
Doffer 



Diam. 



Speed and Gearing 



12 , 

5 

40 

8 

5 

50 
8 

5 
12 

5 
30 

50 

8 

5 
12 
30 



100 X 12 X 9 
30 X 12 

100X12 



32 

See 1st Doffer 

37^ X 32 

10 

100 

See 1st Doflfer 

100 X 34 

10 
100 X 34 

12 

100 X 34 

"^lO 

100 X 9 X 25 

18 X 195 

100 
See 1st Workers 
See 1st Stripper 
See 1st Fancy 
See 1st DofFer 



Rev. 
Per 

Min. 



30 
340 
37i 

120 

100 
6f 
340 

486 

340 

6f 

100 
6f 
340 

486 
6| 



In. Per 

Sec. 



19 

78 

2i 
31 

262 
9-1- 

89 

305 

89 

10 

262 

2i 
89 
305 
10 



Counts 
and 

Crowns 



-V- 


26 


8 

"8" 


28 


7,5. 


26 


100 


31 

30 


-V- 


30 


-¥- 


30 


^^ 


30 


W 


33 


125 

"TT' 
185 


35 
35 



Wire 



30 
34 
35 



103 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



91 




Tables 3 and 4 show how much more gently the worsted card 
begins its work. The efficiency of the first working point is only 
198, or one fifth of that of a woolen card breast and worker. The 
second point is equal to 240 and the third is 1136, 

This shows that although in general practice, the speeds are 
not arranged to give an increase in exact accordance with the rules 
of either mathematical or 
simple progression, there 
is a steady and uniform 
rate of increase of surface 
traverse from each work- 
ing point to the next, until 
the first cylinder is reach- 
ed. After that all increase 
ceases. Just at the point ^^" 

where the wool is so much opened that it would bear more severe 
combing, the increased fineness of wire and crown in the second 
cylinder and workers by no means taking the place of a further 
increase of speed. 

Unfortunately, we are confronted with the practical difiiculty 
that the second cylinder is already running at the highest possible 
speed, without making excessive waste, and we must look for any 
possible alteration elsewhere. 

We do not find that the slow speed of the lickers reduces 

their carrying capacity in any way, and as theory suggests that 

there should be a difference between the first and second cylinders, 

it seems as if No, 1 should be reduced until 

its surface traverse takes a proper place in 

the ascending scale shown in Column 5, 

Table 4, with the clothing so arranged that 

the combing efliciency of points 5, 6, 7 and 

^^' ■ 8 will also bear a uniform relation to those 

coming before and after it in Column 7. 

The art of carding has not reached perfection, and it is sug- 
gested that if improvements are to be effected, those with oppor- 
tunities for experiment should work along some such lines as are 
here indicated. 

In addition to the relative surface speeds of any two rolls, 




103 



92 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




104 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 93 

their size and distance apart directly affect the amount of work 
they do to the wool. In regard to size, it may be said that the 
working power of every pair of rolls depends on the time during 
which they are near enough to do effective work. If we assume 
that two rolls begin to operate the wool as soon as they come 
within |- of an inch of one another, it is clear that they will con- 
tinue to w^ork for the whole time they are within this distance, and 
a reference to the figures shows that the surfaces of two 12-inch 
rolls are within |- inch of each other for 3 inches, and two 24-inch 
rolls are within |- inch of each other for 4 inches (see Fig. 56), 
and therefore the two 24-inch rolls will do |- times as much work 
if the surface speeds and clothing are alike. In the diagram the 
scale has been exaggerated to show the principle more clearly. 

Put in another way, we may say that if a staple were fast on 
the teeth of B (Fig. 57) at F it will be combed by all. the teeth of 
A between E and F, so that if there are 20 teeth per inch along 
the circumference it will be combed by 20 X 3 in one revolution, 
whereas on G (Fig. 56) it would be combed 20 X 4: = 80. It is a 
case of simple proportion, and one which deserves much greater 
attention than it receives. It is impossible to say if the working 
power increases in practice as much as in here shown, for no one 
could say at what distance the wool begins to be affected by an- 
other roll, and if the calculations were based on a distance apart of 
one half inch instead of one inch the relation of the two calculations 
would be entirely altered. 

For this reason no figures have been entered in any of the tables 
under this head, but there can be no doubt that larger rolls do more 
work than smaller ones when other things are equal, and the work 
done between a 40-inch doffer and a 50-inch cylinder must be se- 
verer than that at any other point on a card, even if the action of 
the fancy (as before described) were left out of account; and if the 
tests for broken fibers can be taken as a fair average of the break- 
age which is always going on, some means should be adopted to 
lessen the great strain on the wool at that point. 

Fig. 58 and Table 6 show the particulars of a Davis and Fur- 
ber breast and two licker-in card for coarse wools. A comparison 
with Fig. 54 and Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4 will show the difference in 
the working points between this card and the English style four 
licker-in card. 



105 



94 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



TABLE 6 









ENGLISH 




FEET 


REV. 






POINTS 


COUNTS 


DIAM- 


PER 


PER 




SIZE WIRE 


PER 


AND 


ETER 


MIN- 


MIN- 






SQ. FOOT 


CROWNS 


UTE 


UTE 


Feed Rolls 


Metallic 






3" 


1^ 


3 


1st Licker 


Burr Wire 






20" 


110 


23 


1st Divider 


11 li 






14" 


ZS% 


9.5 


2nd Licker 


Garnet Wire 






20" 


210 


42 


2nd Divider 


n 






14" 


33 li 


9.5 


Breast 


20 D. P. 


8,064 


35-4 


36" 


360 


40 


Two Workers 


23 D. P. 


21,736 


30-13 


10" 


31 


8.4 


Two Strippers 


23 Steel 


14,400 


50-5 


4" 


80 


80 


1st Angle Stripper 


24 


• 17,380 


50-6 


8" 


638 


314 


1st Cylinder 


33 


63,360 


110-10 


48" 


1116 


93 


Three Workers 


34 


66,240 


115-10 


10" 


31 


8.4 


Fancy- 


26 


10,368 


30-6 


12" 


1434 


478 


Doff er 


34 


66.240 


115-10 


36" 


87.3 


8.6 


2nd Angle Stripper 


33 


57.600 


100-10 


8" 


186 


93 


2nd Cylinder 


35 


86,400 


135-13 


48" 


1116 


93 


Three Workers 


36 


89.856 


130-13 


10" 


18.5 


7.4 


Three Strippers 


33 


46.656 


90-9 


4" 


373 


373 


Fancy 


28 


17,280 


50-6 


12" 


1434 


478 


Doffer • 


36 


89,856 


130-13 


36" 


76.5 


7.5 



SETTING 

The knowledge of how to set a card properly is a qualification 
of the greatest value, not only in a carding overseer, but to every 
man who has a card under his care. The best of men make errors, 
and every overseer should be able to supplement the work of his 
subordinates. Where rolls are kept in the best possible condition 
or "point" by frequent grinding, they rapidly alter in diameter, 
and as every alteration makes it necessary to reset them, it is an art 
of the greatest delicacy which is needed every day. 

In foreign countries much more attention is given to setting, 
and the gauge is in constant use, whereas, in the United States, the 
eye and ear are often supposed to be accurate enough for this most 
delicate operation. The gauge (Eig. 59) very much resembles a 
closed steel two-foot rule, but instead of having two blades, it has 
from four to eight, each about 10^ inches long by 1^ inches wide 
and pivoted at one end, and varying in thickness from J^- to -gL- 
of an inch, or from 22 to 30 wire gauges. 

In France, as soon as the machine has been ground and cleaned, 
and perhaps one or two of the workers replaced by interchange- 
able duplicates, which are always kept sharp and clean, the over- 
seer literally makes a tour over the card, slipping the selected 
blade from his set of gauges between every working pair of rolls 
at two or more points along their breadth. If the gauge fits too 
tightly, or if there is too much room at either side, a quarter turn 



106 




tn 




m 


Pl 


o 


o 


z 


m 


» 


^ 


o 


c3 


Q 


>. 


tf 





<! 


« 


u 






H 


>- 




o 


M 


K 





WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



95 




Fig. 59; 



is given to the screw which supports the bearings of the worker, 
to make the adjustment so accurate along the whole working face, 
that at no point will there be a variation of yjjVo ^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^'^ 
space between the points of two rolls. 

Setting varies so widely for different qualities of work that it 
is impossible to formulate any theory, but it is clear that the first 
rolls must not be so close together as those farther on in the card, 
and there should be a fairly definite scale of decrease from the 
beo-inning to the end. The setting of three workers on each cyl- 
inder may be taken as an illustration, for it is far too common to 
find them all at one distance 
from the cylinder. If this be 
the case, the first one will do 
much more than its share of 
the work, for its position makes 
it catch nearly all the projecting 
fibers and do more than half the 
work, which ought to be equally 
divided between the three. This will naturally tend to break many 
of the fibers, whereas, if each worker were set one or two thousandths 
of an inch farther from the cylinder than the one behind it, each 
one of them would be doing the same amount of work and be 
equally fall of wool, if all were clothed alike as is the general 
practice. If No. 2 were clothed rather n:ore openly than No. 3, 
and JSTo. 1 clothed mote openly than No. 2, the setting would need 
to be altered slightly in proportion, and the carding would be 
more gently done in consequence. 

In the different machines of a preparing set the draft of the 
successive machines is a most important item. In a card these 
various operations are represented by the speed of each successive 
pair of working rolls, as show'n in Table 3; but in the latter the 
nature of the operation differs widely from the drafting of a pre- 
paring box, as the wool is not held firmly at any point in a card 
after it leaves the feed rolls. It is, therefore, quite impossible to 
calculate any of the individual drafts, and the total draft has very 
little relation to the work done, as it really includes numerous 
doublings as well as drafts, wherever one roll over-runs another, 
point first; and as these doublings are also impossible to calculate. 



107 




96 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

the only figure which is of practical value is the draft between the 
feed rolls and the output of the back doffer This is in inches of 
surface traverse as -Jg- to 9, or a total draft of the machine of 270 
to 1. 

If the slivers are too thick or too small for the comber, they 
may be changed, either by altering the speed of the back doffer or 
changing the weight per minute which the automatic feed is deliv- 
ering on the feed apron. 

The former plan is very seldom adopted, although it would 
have the great advantage of maintaining the total output of the 
card at its greatest amount. In practice, alteration is generally 

made at the feed end; the length 
of sliver turned out remaining 
constant, and the w^eight being 
-y^ varied according to size of sliver 
required. 
(2)1 Heating. It is a well accept- 

ed fact that a good deal of heat 
^^' ' is necessary to obtain the m'ost sat- 

isfactory results in carding, but it is not very clear what effect the 
heat has on the structure of the individual fibers, therefore the 
fact must be taken as it stands, quite apart from any theory on 
the subject. The most satisfactory results are obtained at an air 
temperature of over 75° F., but any heat between 75° and 95° F. 
is good, and if it were not for the discomfort of the operatives it 
is probable that the temperature of 85° or 90° would be main- 
tained. Sometimes, when the first' lickers are made of iron, they 
are heated by steam; but the more general method is to have three 
or more coils of steam -pipes under each card, so arranged that the 
ascending warm air has every opportunity of affecting the wool as 
it passes through the machine. 

DOFFINQ 

The method by which wool is removed from the doffer is so 
simple that very little explanation is necessary. At the point 
where the doffer is stripped by the dofiing motion the wires are 
pointing downward, and the doffing comb or plate, which is a 
smooth steel comb with very short teeth (from 16 to 20 per inch). 



108 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



97 



rises and falls very fast and as near as possible to the wire of the 
dofi'er. 

The direction of the points of the doffer and the pull of the 
drawing off rolls, prevent the wool from rising with the comb on 
its up stroke, and the dofiing comb may be said to simply push 
the wool down out of the wire, ready to be drawn away by the 
drawing off rolls. When the wires 
of the doffer are very sharp and 
smooth, a free and open sliver of 
wool will come away from the 
doffer with very little help from 
the comb, and in some cases it 
may be seen to leave the doffer 
some inches before the comb 
touches it. 

The arrangements for driving the comb are so numerous and 
simple that it will be useless to describe them in detail. They 
may be all classed under two types as follows : Those in which the 
comb simply rises and falls 1^ or 2 inches in the arc of a circle 
(Fig 60), and those in which the comb draws away from the wire 

at the bottom of the stroke and 




Fig. 61. 




Fig. 62. 



is farther away from the doffer 
on the up stroke than on the 
down stroke. There are many 
variations of the latter type, but 
most of them are carried on an 
eccentric 1, Fig. 61, and have 
an arm or lever attached by a 
joint 2 to the shack 3. If the 



distance from the comb 4 to the center 1 be double the length of 
the arm 1 to 2 and if the eccentric have a stroke of -J inch, the 
comb will have an up and down movement of 1^ inches; and if it 
be Jg- incli from the wire of the doffer on the down stroke (see 
Fig. 62), it will be ^-^ away as it rises (Fig. 61). Opinions differ 
as to which is the better form. The eccentric motion certainly 
helps to draw the wool away from the wire after it has loosened 
it, but on the other hand, it travels in a kind of elliptical orbit and 



109 



98 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



is not so close to the cloffer for the same proportion of the down 
stroke as is the comb of the simpler type shown at Fig. 60. 

GRINDING 

Grinding has three important uses'.^first, to make the wire on 
the rolls perfectly true — that is to say, that the end of every wire 
shall be absolutely the same distance from the center of the cylin- 
der; second, to keep every wire sharp, so that it will catch the 
wool fibers readily and easily; and third, to keep the points smooth, 
so that with equal facility the fibers may be again taken from the 
roll 

The first head raises the much debated question of wood versus 
metal rolls, and as there are still many who contend that w^ell 
built wooden rolls can be kept true, and that the clothing has more 

spring and lasts longer on wood than 
iron, no hard and fast rule can be 
laid down. Every one must admit, 
however, that wood is affected by 
moisture and heat, and as both these 
influences are always present when 
carding is going on, iron and steel 
rolls have a great advantage in that 
they have no tendency to alter on 
account of moisture, and their expan- 
sion under different temperatures is 
so small and uniform in every direc- 
tion that no possible injury can result. On the other hand, the 
best of wood with the most scientific preparation will alter under 
excessive changes of temperature and humidity. 

The correct angle at which the wires of card clothing should 
stand is shown in Fig. 63. The inner circle 1 represents the cir- 
cumference of the cylinder. The space 1-2 is the foundation of 
the clothing. Line 3 is the correct place for the bend, and line 4 
is extremity of the wires after grinding. The wire on the radial 
line A is the correct position. 

•When working, the wires have a tendency to bend backwards. 
They must be so set in the clothing that whichever way they bend, 
their points must be at the greatest distance from the center of the 




Fig. 63. 



110 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



99 



roll when in their normal position. This position is on the radial 
lines. Whichever way A is bent in the foundation, its point 
comes within the circle 4. C, on the other hand, is very badly 
set, because when bent back its point would be outside of circle 4 
and would touch the roll with which it is working. The wire C 

o 

would at once lose its point and would damage the wire on the 
other roll. Wire set like B is very good, but a very slight back- 
ward movement would take it so far from the line 4 that it would 
be of little use in carding. 

When a cylinder or doffer is to be clothed, it is first turned up 
in its own bearings until absolutely true. The clothing is then 
wound on very lightly, the tension being kept uniform by the use 




Fig. 64. 

of a machine, while the roll is turned away very slowly by means 
of gearing. In spite of all the care that is taken in the making 
and the winding on of the clothing, the pitch at which the wire 
stands is apt to vary slightly in places, or the wire itself may not 
bed down with equal uniformity all along the surface, so that a roll 
never runs absolutely true when first clothed. To make it true it 
must be ground, the longest wires being ground away until they 
are equal in length to the shortest. 

Workers, strippers and fancies are taken to a special frame to 
be ground (Fig. 64), but a cylinder or doffer is always run in its 
own bearings, the clothing in every case traveling heel first at a 
surface speed of 200 or 250 inches per second (100 rev. per min. of 
a 50-inch cylinder). 

At the point of contact, the surface of the emery roll moves 
in the opposite direction to the cylinder (Fig, 65). An emery roll 



111 



100 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



about the same size as a worker (12 inches) is put into a pair of 
worker bearings, which are so adjusted by fine screws, that at first 
it just touches the highest points of the wire. If this work is not 
done very gently, the wires will be bent down instead of being 
ground away to the proper length, and as soon as the roll begins 
to do its work, running point first, the wires 
will return to their original position, and 
make very bad work by taking off the points 
of other rolls, which they ought just to clear. 
As grinding continues, and the longest 
wires have been somewhat shortened, the 
emery roll, still revolving, is moved a very 
little nearer to the cylinder, and in this man- 
ner the grinding is continued until all the 
wires are of uniform length, and the emery 
roll touches the wire with equal pressure all arovmd. 

The method usually adopted is to stop this card every tliree 
or four days, and while the cylinders and larger rolls are being 
ground in their own places, all the workers and smaller rolls are 
taken to the grinding frame. 

The frame is made to take a card roll on either side A of the 
emery roll B, revolving in the direction shown at Fig. 64, the 




Fig. 65. 



Front Side Front Side 

Fig. 66. Fig. 67. 

workers being driven heel first, with a surface traverse of about 
200 inches per second, exactly opposite to that of the emery roll at 
the point of contact. 

If the emery used on the roll be very fine in grain, the result- 
ing point on the wire would be quite square when seen from back 
or front, with a diamond or tool point when viewed from a side ele- 
vation. This is shown at Fig. 66. In practice this is not very 
satisfactory, for when any piece of metal is filed or ground squarely 
across the grain, a slight lip or curl at the edge almost invariably 



il8 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 101 

occurs, and although it is so small as to be quite invisible on the 
wire, it is sufficient to affect the fine fibers in carding and cause 
them to stick instead of leaving the roll freely. 

Some method had to be devised to remove this rough edge, and 
it was found that fine emery laid on the roll in grooves, or the use of 
very coarse grained emery, had the same effect as a file held diag- 
onally, the wire being ground to a knife edge instead of a square 
point, and having the same tool point when seen from the side. 
This greatly magnified the surface of the roll, the points of the 
wires would appear as in Fig. 67, and, furthermore, they would be 
without rough edges. 

AUTOMATIC FEEDING 

The object of an automatic feed is to ensure that every yard 
of sliver shall be exactly the same weight as every other yard, in 
other words, that the sliver shall always be exactly the same thick- 
ness. When wool was fed by hand on to the feed sheet, it natu- 
rally followed that the weight of the. sliver varied from time to 
time, because it was impossible for any feeder, however expert, to 
Judge by feel or by any other method, if there be Just the right 
weight of wool on the feed sheet. 

Carders who were particular began to consider ways and 
means to get the weight of their sliver more constant, and some of 
them marked the lattice into divisions, each say twelve inches 
long. A scale to weigh the wool was placed by each feed sheet, 
and Just as one mark was passing the feed rolls, half a pound or 
so of wool was taken from the scale and spread over a division of 
the feed sheet. This system is only accurate where the greatest 
care is used, but it introduced the principle on which the auto- 
matic feeds are constructed. The latter weigh out a given weight 
of wool on to a given length of feed sheet, and are so arranged that 
the weight can easily be altered as required for different qualities 
of wool. It follows that, to do work of this kind, the mechanism 
should be very delicate. 

The feed roll moves |- of a revolution per minute, as shown in 
Table 1, and is geared to the feed sheet by two gears of 25 and 28 
teeth. The feed sheet moves | x f f X Si- X V = f inches per 
minute. But the cam (Fig. 68) which opens the pan P by means 



113 



102 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



of lever L, is also driven direct from the feed roll, tlirough the same 
gears, 25 and 28, and a chain over two sprocket wheels of 11 and 
13 teeth. The two gears which drive the cam C are equal in size, 






IJL — 



This shows that the pan opens once every 4|- 



minutes, that is f X f or once every time the feed sheet has moved 




Fig. 68. 

8 Jg- inches, and if the pan- always contains one-half pound of wool, 
it follows that every SJ-g- inches of feed sheet must always be 
covered by one-half pound of wool. In this, the whole principle of 
the machine is embodied. 

The mechanism for filling the pan is quite simple. The 
sheet G is covered with pins, and when the machine is running, 
they carry the wool up from the hopper H over into the pan. The 
sheet is started by the lever L as soon as the pan closes at every 
revolution, and the sheet continues to run until there is wool 



114 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 103 

enongli in the pan to operate the mechanism for stopping the feed 
sheet. The other mo^^ements on the machine are simply arranged 
to distribute the wool evenly in the pan, which extends the full 
width of the machine, and to press the wool up to its proper place 
after it has fallen on to the feed sheet. In Fig. 68 the belt from K 
to M, and the clutch gear which drives the sheet from M are not 
shown. 

BURRING 

There are few things which cause more annoyance to carders 
and spinners than the seeds of a plant, native to Australia, which 
are known to every one in the trade as "burrs." Their natural 
shape, as seen in the unwashed fleece, is that of a small pea, but 
they are soft, and are built in spirals of prickly fibers, which are 
capable of unwinding to such an extent that 
after carding, each burr seed may produce sev- 
eral inches of thin spiked fibers which are so 
injurious both in spinning and weaving. When 
the seeds are ripe they stick to the wool of any 
sheep passing the plants on which they grow; 
and they adhere through every process until 
they are forcibly removed or destroyed. 

Burrs now occur in small numbers in al- 
most every class of wool, so that all carding ^^' 
machines are supplied with rolls for removing them. Any num- 
ber of burr rolls up to six are placed above the lickers and 
dividers, so that the burrs may be knocked out before they are 
opened by the carding process. Each roll is set as shown in Fig. 
69, with its blades always revolving against the points of the card 
wire. 

In this position the draught caused by the revolution of the 
beater, drives the wool on to the wire, while the burrs are hit by the 
blades of the beater and thrown forcibly into the pans provided for 
them. If the burr roll revolved in the opposite direction, it would 
tend to lift the wool as well as the burrs from the. card. With 
wool which contains only a medium quantity of burrs, this process 
is very efficient; but in cases where it is not essential to have every 
particle of burr fiber removed, or where the burrs are very nu- 
merous, other methods are adopted. 



115 




104 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

The oldest machine for this purpose consisted of two heavy 
iron rolls, turned up very true and fixed so rigidly in a frame that 
they were always about one hundredth of an inch apart. Through 
this very small space they could go with impunity, but any burr 
was crushed to pieces in passing. When such rolls are used before 
carding, the locks of wool are apt to go through in lumps so large 
that they, like the burrs, are cut to pieces, and to insure the wool 
passing through the rolls in a uniformly thin film, the rolls have 
been used in the middle of the carding process and sometimes 
later than that. . | 

Probably when placed in the middle they do their work.best, 
for the rolls which precede them open out the staples into a film of 
uniform density, so that nothing but the burrs can be crushed. 
Most of the broken fragments fall on the floor as the wool passes 
over the remaining rolls. Any pieces which can be found in the 
carded sliver after this process are very short, and can always be 
taken out in the combing. 

• The latest invention for removing burrs consists of a roll 
covered with square- toothed garnet wire, so finely set that at first 
sight the roll seems to be solid. The fact is that the wires are set 
so close to each other that the wool can just get down between 
them, but the burrs cannot do so. This roll is usually placed as 
early in the card as possible. Wherever it is placed, a burr roll is 
always placed above it, the blades coming within -gL of an inch of 
the wire, so that they can scrape away every burr, while the wool 
held fast between the wires is dragged away from the burrs to the 
carding rolls which follow. 

Another system of removing burrs is the carbonizing process, 
which is very frequently used in the woolen trade, and doubtless 
a great deal of wool which is used for worsteds is carbonized before 
it goes to the comber. 

The best carbonized wool is that which is treated before it is 
removed from the skins, but mostly it is treated after scouring; it 
is, in fact, necessary that all impurities should first be removed. 
The wool is then put into a solution of sulphuric acid in clean 
water (of a varying strength from 6° to 10° Baume) for 20 to 30 
minutes, when it is taken out and put into an extractor to remove 
every trace of moisture. When dry, the wool is placed in an oven 



116 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 105 

or dryer at 45® C, until quite dry, when the temperature may be 
raised to 100° C. until all vegetable matter is thoroughly disinte- 
grated. After this treatment all that remains of the burrs and 
shives will fall out in the carding. 

The only disadvantage of this process is the effect of the acid 
on the wool. Theoretically, it does no harm if the acid never ex- 
ceeds 12° Baume in density, but where wool has to be spun to fine 
counts, it is found that either the acid or the baking, or both, 
affects the spinning power, in addition to making the wool much 
harsher to the ''feel." 

WOOLEN CARDING 

The usual method in carding for woolen yarns is to employ 
three machines; i. e., the First Breaker Card, Second Breaker 
Card, and Finisher Card with Condenser. The principles em- 
ployed in woolen carding are the same as those used in carding for 
worsted yarns as explained at Fig. 51; yet there are many differ- 
ences between the two processes, as will become apparent by study- 
ing the following explanations. 

It will be well to have firmly fixed in the mind the difference 
in speeds of equivalent parts in the two processes which may be 
noted by reference to the tables. 

Up to and including the first breaker of a set of woolen cards, 
the principles of worsted carding and woolen carding are identical, 
with the exception that in a worsted card the wool is drawn 
straight from the center of the doffer, in order to keep the fibers 
straight, while on the first breaker of a woolen set it is drawn from 
the side, which causes the wool delivered from the doffer to roll up 
into a round sliver, with the fibers intermixed in every direction. 

FIRST BREAKER CARD 

The illustration shown at Fig. 70 represents a Davis and Fur- 
ber first breaker card, equipped with Bramwell feed and Torrance 
balling machine, which may be taken as a representative machine. 
The main cylinder A is forty-eight inches in diameter; doffer B, 
thirty inches; fancy C, ten inches. Each of the six workers 
D, are seven inches in diameter; the strippers E are three inches; 
the tumbler F, nine inches; burr cylinder G, seven inches; and the 
feed rolls H, two inches. 



117 



106 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



The purpose of this machine, as implied by the name, is to 
break up the raw stock, thoroughly intermix the fibers, and deliver 
the wool in a free and open condition to the second breaker. 

It is more important in the woolen carding process that the 
feed and the delivery should be absolutely even, as there are no op- 
portunities to correct unevenness or imperfections such as there are 
in the processes of worsted manufacturing. For this reason it is 
essential to have every part working correctly. 

In starting the first breaker it is best to weigh enough wool 
in the feed pan to make a good compact feed on the feed apron. 
If the drawing is too heavy or too light it must be regulated to 
keep the second breaker card well supplied. Due consideration 
must be given to the weight of roving to be made on the finisher 
and condenser. If the sliver from the first breaker is too heavy 
the second breaker and perhaps the finisher will be compelled to 
do more work than they should do, which will cause imperfect 
roving and generally unsatisfactory results. 

Table 7 gives all the particulars of the first breaker card. 

TABLE 7 
FIRST BREAKER CARD 



Name 



Feed 

rolls 
Burr 

guard 
Burr 
cylinder 

Tumbler 

Workers 
Strip- 
pers 
Main 
cylinder 

Fancy 

Doffer 



Dia. 

(bare) 

2" 


Dia. 

(clothed) 


Revs, 
per m. 


Surface 

speed 

clothed 

Change 


2J^" 


Change 


3K" 


3K" 


525 


481.2 


7" 


7K" 


112.5 


213.5 


9" 


Wa" 


138.5 


353.6 


7" 


Wa" 


4 


8.12 


• 3" 


33/" 


350 


343.7 


48" 


48K" 


90 


1149 


10" 


n%" 


525 


1615 


30" 


:zo%" 


7.2 


57.9 





Size 






Wire 


of 

wire 


Counts 


Crowns 


Lickerin 








. 4 per in. 


No. 1 






Burr long top 








10 per in. 


" 2 






Steel 








Twilled 


" 32 


85 


10 


Steel 








Twilled 


" 32 


85 


10 


Steel 








Twilled 


" 32 


85 


10 


Steel 








Twilled 


" 32 


105 


8 


Steel 








Twilled 


" 32 


60 


8 


Steel 








Twilled 


" 32 


70 


12 



Writ- 
ten 



Feed Rolls. To commence at the beginning of the machine 
the feed rolls are either metallic or leather covered. If covered 
with leather the wire should be convex, and should be set as close 



118 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



107 




119 



108 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



as possible. If metallic, it is best to have the points intersect as 
they will hold the stock much better. These rolls take the stock 
from the feed apron and deliver it to the burr cylinder 4. 

Wipe Roll, The wipe roll, as shown at 3 in Fig. 71, should be 
set close to the top feed roll. Its purpose is to brush back any 
stock that is carried up to it on the top feed roll. 

Burr Cylinder. The burr cylinder, shown at 4 in Fig. 71, 
should be metallic covered. It is absolutely necessary to keep this 
cylinder sharp as its office is to take the stock from the feed rolls 
and deliver it to the tumbler. 

Burr Guard. The burr guard, shown at 5 in Fig. 71, should 
be set close enough to the burr cylinder to knock off the burrs. 




Fig. 71. Side Elevation of First Breaker Card. 

It should revolve against the points of the wire on the burr 
cylinder. If the burr guard revolved in the opposite direction it 
would have a tendency to raise the wool out of the wire, while 
by revolving against the points of the wire on the cylinder, the 
draught caused by its beaters or wings drives the wool into the 
wire while the burrs are hit by the beaters and knocked into the~ 
pan provided for them. 

Tumbler. The tumbler, shown at 6 in Fig. 71, should be fillet 
covered with No. 32 round or double convex wire. It is very es- 
sential that the tumbler be kept sharp and true in order to prevent 



120 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



109 



the stock from dropping, and to ensure that it is delivered evenly 
to the main cylinder. 

Main Cylinder. The main cylinder, shown at 9 in Fig. 71, 
takes the wool from the tumbler and carries it forward to the first 




worker 8 which is rapidly filled with wool and as rapidly stripped 
by the stripper roll 7 The stripper should be set so close to the 
worker that the sound of the friction caused by the passing of the 
wires may be heard by listening attentively. The points of the 



121 



no WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

wires on the stripper revolve against tlie back of the wires of the 
worker which, combined with the great difference in their speeds, 
causes the stripper to remove or strip the wool from the teeth of 
the worker. Refer to Fig. 71 and note carefully the direction in 
which the rolls revolve, as indicated by the arrows. 

As explained in the process of worsted carding, when the 
wires or teeth meet, point to point, the cards in so meeting card 
the wool and fill each other with carded wool, but when the points 
on one roll or cylinder rub against the back of the wire on another, 
the one running point first strips the one it is running against, 
provided it is at a greater speed. In this instance the stripper 
runs point first against the back of the wires on the worker and as 
it runs at a speed of ninety inclies per second while the worker 
runs only two and one-half inches per second, it strips the wool 
from the M^orker very effectively. 

Thus, it will be understood that as each worker is being con- 
tinually filled with wool on one side by the main cylinder, it is just 
as continually being stripped on the other side by the stripper. 
The wool is delivered back to the main cylinder by the stripper 
and is carried back to the next pair of workers and stripper rolls. 
Each set of workers and strippers repeat the operation performed 
by the first pair, the wool being carried forward to the fancy. 

The action of the pairs of rolls through which the wool has 
passed has opened and carded the stock, and now it is necessary to 
prepare for tlie removal of the wool, or what is technically known 
as do-fflng. The fancy, shown at 10 in Fig. 71, raises the wool on 
the teeth of the main cylinder preparatory to doffing. To thor- 
oughly understand how this is brought about, careful reference 
must be made to Fig. 71. Note the direction in which the wires 
point and compare this to the position of the wires in the main 
cylinder-; also note the direction in which the fancy revolves. 

The surface speed of the fancy must be greater than the sur- 
face speed of the cylinder (see Table 7), or it could not possibly 
raise the fibers; yet the difference in speeds must not be too great 
or the wool will be thrown off the cylinder. The fancy revolves 
with the back of the wires toward the cylinder so the relative po- 
sition of the wires on the cylinder and fancy is back to back, no 
"Doints being- -presented direct to either. The result of this is that 



123 




o 

K . 

< o 

o o 

eg A 

H g 



a- ^ 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 111 



the fancy acts simply as a brush to raise the wool out of the cyl- 
inder. The speed must be regulated so nicely that the wool will 
just be raised to the surface of the cylinder wire so that it may be 
easily removed by the doffer. 

Doffer, The doffer, show^n at 11 in Fig, 71, presents the 
points of the teeth to the points of the cylinder and removes the 
wool (which has been raised by the fancy) from the cylinder, car- 
rying it around to the steel doffer comb 12. 

Doffer Comb. The Doffer Comb has a reciprocating move- 
ment, and strips the wool from the doffer, delivering it to a ball 
(if side drawing) or to the feed apron of the Apperly feed if this 
system is used. The explanation of this system is reserved for 
another chapter. 

The Davis and Furber first breaker card is furnished with a 
side drawing balling head as some manufacturers still prefer the 
use of this method with a simple creel behind the second breaker, 
but this balling arrangement is not attached when the Torrance 
balling machine, shown at Fig. 70, is used, a pair of delivery rolls 
being substituted. 

Torrance Bailing Machine and Creel. This machine is for 
the purpose of winding the side drawing from the first breaker 
into flat "balls" which are then placed in a creel and fed to the 
second breaker. The advantages claimed for this machine are that 
the shape of balls is such that a larger number of ends can be fed 
to the second breaker without using an exceptionally large creel. 
It will be readily understood that the larger the number of ends 
fed to the second breaker, the more even will the sliver be, and con- 
sequently the roving from the finisher will be more even and the 
wool will be more thoroughly blended. 

SECOND BREAKER CARD 

The second breaker is an almost exact duplicate of the first 
breaker, the chief difference being that the burr cylinder is re- 
placed by a lickerin which is covered w^ith a coarse card clothing 
in place of burr wire. The reason for this is that the wool is opened 
on the first breaker and is in a comparatively clean condition, 
which makes the use of such strong teeth as are used on the burr 



123 



112 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



cylinder, unneceseary. Over the lickerin is placed a lickerin fancy 
which cleans the lickerin. 

Reference to Fig. 73 will show the similarity of this machine 




to the first breaker. The feed rolls are clothed with diamond 
pointed wire and there is a wipe roll to keep the top roll clean. 
The wipe roll is covered w^ith the same -wire that is on the feed 
rolls. 



124 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



113 



Fig. 74 shows the method of driving the feed rolls, which is 
common to both the first and second breaker cards. As previously 
stated, it is very important in woolen carding that the feed and 
delivery should be absolutely even, as there are no after processes 




Fig. 7i. Gearing for Feed Rolls and Dofler. 

in which unevenness can be^rectified, such as there are in worsted 
manufacturing. This mechanism positively controls the feed and 
delivery of the card and regulates the weight of the sliver to a fine 
degree. 

o 

Referring to Fig. 74, 1 is a bevel gear on a stud at the feed 
end of the machine, 2 is bevel gear on the shaft 5, 3 is a gear on 
the same stud as 1 and drives the gear 4, which is on the feed rolls, 
5 is the connecting shaft from the doffer to the feed rolls, 6 is a 
bevel gear on the shaft 5, at the doffer end of the machine, and 
drives the bevel gear 7. The gear 8 is on the same stud as 7 and 
meshes with the gear 9, which is on the doffer shaft. 

TABLE 8 
SECOND BREAKER CARD 



Name 


Dia. 

(bare) 


Dia. 

(clotlied) 


Revs, 
perm. 


Surface 

speed 

clothed 


Wire 


Size of 
Wire 


Counts 


Crowns 


Written 


Feed 
rolls 


IH" 


2^" 


Change 


Change 


A 

Steel 

twilled 


No. 33 


30 


6 


'^ 


Wiper 


!%■' 


2%" 


Change 


Change 


No. 30 


80 


10 


15 


Lickerin 

Lickerin 

Fancy 


5/2" 
3" 


6^" 


112.5 
350 


184.1 
435.3 


A 

steel 
twilled 

Steel 
twilled 

Steel 
twilled 

Steel 
twilled 

Steel 
twilled 

Steel 
twilled 

Steel 
twilled 


No. 26 
No. 30 


45 

GO 


7 
8 


-V- 


Tumbler 
Strip- 
pers 

Workers 

Main 

Cylinder 


9" 
3" 

7" 
48" 


9%" 

483/^" 


138.5 

350 

4 

90 


353.6 
343.7 

8.13 
1149 


No. 34 
No. 34 
No. 34 
No. 34 


90 
90 
90 
135 


13 
13 
13 

8 


1% 
J.gS 


Fancy 


10" 


UK" 


525 


1615 


No. 34 


70 


8 


30. 


Doffer 


30" 


Z0%" 


7.3 


57.9 


No. 34 


90 


13 


13 



187 



114 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



Returning to Fig. 73 the parts of the second breaker are as fol- 
lows : A is a guide plate which guides the ends from the creel to 
the feed rolls B, C is the wipe roll which, as explained above, is 
clothed with the same wire that covers the feed rolls. Its purpose 
is to keep the feed rolls clean. The wool is passed from the feed 
rolls to the lickerin D, and from there it is passed to the tumbler 
F. Over the lickerin is placed the lickerin fancy which cleans the 
lickerin. The wool is passed on to the main cylinder by the 
tumbler and receives the same carding and stripping process that 
is performed in the first breaker rard. The fancy M raises the 
wool to facilitate the work of the doffer N. Table 8 gives all the 
particulars of the second breaker card. 

FINISHER CARD 

This, as implied by the name, is the last card in the set. It 
differs somewhat from the first and second breakers, although the 
same general principles are found. In place of the single doffer, 
as on the first two cards, there are two doffers, one over the other, 




IJLIWJlJUi! 

Fig. 75. Ring Doffers. 

both of which are clothed with rings of card clothing. The 
method of covering these doffers is to place, alternately, strips or 
rings of card clothing and strips of leather, the latter to fill the 
spaces between the rings of card clothing and to assist in keeping 
them in position. 

The width and number of these rings vary with the width of 
the card and the number of slivers of roving required. Each 
strand of the roving is condensed from the ribbon of carded wool 
stripped from the cylinder by a ring on a doJffier. The usual num- 



1S28 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



Uo 




X?9 



116 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

ber of rovings from a forty-eight inch card is forty-eight, allowing 
for two outside or waste ends. These waste ends are the result of 
using the Apperly or other similar feeds which double the sliver 
on the feed apron of the finisher card. 

On fine work sometimes as many as seventy- two ends are 
taken from a forty-eight inch card, the rings, of course, being set 
close together. On a sixty inch card, sixty ends in addition to the 
two outside waste ends are usually taken, but on fine work as 
many as eighty ends may be taken. 

Fig. 75 shows a diagram of top and bottom doffers with rings 
and spaces. It will be noted that the rings are alternated so as to 
cover the w^hole surface of the main cylinder. 

The end ring marked A is the v»'aste end ring. One of these 
rings is on the left end of the bottom doffer and the other is on 
the right end of the top doifer. The rings as stated above, take 
the wool from the edges where it is always heavier on account of 
the doublings of the Apperly feed. These waste ends are dis- 
posed of by waste end conveyers of which there are several kinds; 
the one generally used being the method of conveying the waste 
back to the feed of the first breaker through a pipe by means of a 
fan. In some cases the waste ends are wound on to small spools, 
then pulled apart and thrown into the first breaker feed. 

The clothing on the rings should receive the most careful at- 
tention, and the wires be kept sharp and in proper position or the 
roving cannot be uniformly even. 

Fig. 76 shows the main features of the finisher card, and it 
will be seen that it differs very little from the first and second 
breakers. The chief diiference is of course the use of two ring; 
doffers in place of the single doffers on the other cards of the set, 
and also the condenser which is attached to the finisher card to 
condense the strands of carded w^ool, taken from the main cylinder 
by the ring doffers, into rovings. 

There is a gear on the bottom doffer shaft for changing the 
speed of the feed rolls, but this will not change the weight of 
the rovings from the finisher card, as that depends upon the 
amount of wool delivered to the finisher from the second breaker. 
In order to change the weight of roving when the second breaker 
and the finisher are coupled together with an Apperly or similar 



130 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



117 




131 



lis 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



feed, it is necessary to change the amount of wool delivered by the 
second breaker, but where the finisher is fed by a creel independent 
of the second breaker, the weight of roving may, of course, be reg- 
ulated independently. 

Some carders prefer to run the workers on the finisher in the 
opposite direction to that in which they are run on the first and 
second breakers, claiming that it prevents flyings and that the work- 
ers are stripped more evenly than when running in the ordinary 
way. With a worker running in the ordinary direction a large 
portion of its surface is covered with wool, which is held until it 
comes in contact with the stripper, with the result that the stripper 
is apt to pull off the wool in bunches or lumps. This cannot 
occur if the worker is reversed, as the wool covers only about one- 
fifth of the surface of the worker before it comes in contact with 
the stripper and is returned to the cylinder. To reverse the work- 
ers, the belt which drives them is crossed. 

It will be noted by again referring to Fig. 76 that the feed 
rolls B, wipe rolls C, lickerin D, lickerin fancy E, and tumbler F, 
are the same as in the second breaker. The strippers H and the 
workers K are in the same relative position to the other parts but 

TABLE 9 

FINISHER CARD 











Surface 




Size 








NAME 


Dia, 


Dia. 


Revs. 


speed 


Wire 


of 


Counts 


Crowns 


Written 




(Bare) 


(Clothed) 


per m. 


clothed 




Wire 
No. 








Feed 


















Rolls 


IX" 


2" 


Change 


Change 


A 

steel 


22 


30 


6 


30 
6" 


Wiper 


1" 


1%" 


Change 


Change 


twilled 


" 30 


80 


10 


so 


Lickerin 


4X" 


5" 


112.5 


144.0 


Cone 


" 24 


25 


6 


35 


Lickerin 
Fancy 


3" 


4%" 


350 


435.3 


Steel 
twilled 

Steel 


"32 


65 


10 


n 


Tumbler 


9" 


9%" 


138.5 


353.6 


twilled 
Steel 


"35 


100 


12 


XSUL 


Strippers 


3" 


3%" 


350 


343.7 


twilled 
Steel 


"35 


100 


12 


-¥/ 


Workers 


7" 


7%" 


4 


8.12 


twilled 


"35 


100 


12 


¥/ 


Main 










Steel ■ 










Cylinder 


48" 


48%" 


90 


1149 


twilled 
Steel 


"35 


150 


8 


150 


Fancy 


10" 


11%" 


525 


1615 


twilled 


"35 


75 


8 


V- 


Ring 










Steel 




90 on top 






Doffers 


12" 


12%" 


11.6 


38.7 


twilled 


"35 


100 on 
bottom 







133 




Q 


n 


« 


C) 


< 




u 


fd 


cn 


^ 


M 


o 


m 
a 


§ 


M 


,Ei 


Q 




y, 


-^ 


o 
u 


3 


K 


t- 


crt 


.^ 


t3 




n 


^ 


w 




D 


H 


tlH 


C/J 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



119 



the workers revolve in the opposite direction. The fancy M works 
exactly the same as in the second breaker card, raising the wool so 
that it may easily be taken from the cylinder by the ring doflfers 
N and O, which are covered with strips of fillet or card clothing 
as shown at Fig. 75. 

The Apperly feed and condenser are also shown in Fig. 76, 
the object being to show their relative positions to the other parts 
of the finisher card. 

The ribbons, doffed from the main cylinder by the ring dof- 
fers, are passed through the combination rub rolls and apron of 
the condenser and delivered to the jack spool in the spool stand. 
There are two spools in the stand and two sets of combination rub 
rolls and aprons, or one for each of the doffers. 



B, C C C C C 




.^®®®©©„ 



o H o)( o) [o )( o 

c c c c c c 



Fig. 78. Condenser. 




Before passing on to detailed explanations of the condensing 
and feeding mechanisms, it should be remarked that the finisher 
card should receive the most careful attention, as the quality of the 
roving produced depends upon the manner in which the stock is 
manipulated in this card. However perfect the carding is per- 
formed in the first and second breakers, good results cannot be 
obtained if the finisher is not properly set. Table 9 gives all the 
parti culars of the finisher card. 

Condenser. The condenser is attached to the finisher card, 
and consists of a mechanism for taking the ribbons of carded wool 
from the ring doffers and condensing or rubbing them into rovings. 
The speed of the condenser must be such as to condense each rib- 
bon into a round thread of roving, and the stroke of the rubbers 
must be a little wider than the widest ring. 



135 



120 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 121 

The roll which takes the stock from the ring is termed a 
wipe or strip roll and is usually covered with corduroy, although 
in some cases it is covered with fillet leather. It should be drafted 
so as not to strain the roving between the doffers and the rub rolls 
and apron. The rolls or aprons must be set close enough to rub a 
moderately hard roving. In some cases on coarse open stock it is 
necessary to set the rolls down hard and increase the speed of the 
rub rolls or aprons. 

While there are several styles of condensers the later ones are 
such a vast improvement over the old styles that it would be a 
waste of time to attempt to explain the old-fashioned ones. At 
the present time all kinds of stock may be handled with very little 
trouble in an up-to-date condenser. The object of all the different 
styles of condensers is the same; i. e., to rub the roving between 
two leather surfaces to give it enough strength and stability to 
prevent injury while it is being wound upon the spool, and later 
while it is being wound off the spool on the spinning mule. 

An illustration of a condenser is given at Fig. 78. A is the 
ring doffer; B, wipe roll; and C, rub rolls. The number of rub 
rolls varies according to the stock and the different ideas of various 
carders; some have seven, others have nine, and still others have 
fifteen. Where there are two ring doffers there are also two sets 
of rub rolls. 

The wipe roll B passes the stock to the rub rolls C and the 
rolls revolve in the direction of the arrows. A transverse or recip- 
rocating movement is also imparted to the rolls by means of eccen- 
trics placed at one side of the condenser. The rub rolls are covered 
with leather, and as before stated, rub the ribbon of waste into a 
round sliver of roving. This rubbing or condensing motion takes 
the place of twist, which is similarly used in other cases to give 
strength to rovings and thread. 

There is slight draft between each pair of rolls which tends 
to keep the roving straight and smooth. After passing through 
the condensing rolls the roving is wound on spools ( D. Fig. 78). 
Apron Condenser. The apron condenser is considered the 
best for all kinds of stock and particularly for very low stock. 
There are usually two pairs of aprons to each doffer. The strands 
of wool pass between the aprons which have a revolving and also a 



137 



122 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



transverse motion which rubs the wool into a smooth round roving. 

The double deck apron condenser built by Davis & Furber is 
shown at Fig. 79. Two belts are required to drive the condenser. 
One belt drives the eccentrics which impart the transverse or 
reciprocating motion, and the other imparts the revolving motion 
to the aprons. 

Apperly Feed. As a rule the sliver is carried from the sec- 
ond breaker and presented to the feed rolls by a device named the 
Apperly feed. This is considered one of the best devices for feed- 
ing finisher cards, as it makes the operation of two cards con- 
tinuous. 




Fig. 80. End View of Apperly Feed. 

The sliver from the second breaker is twisted as it passes 
through the rotating tube and thereby is given strength to be 
carried overhead to the Apperly feed, which is attached to the 
finisher card. 

The number of doublings on the feed apron varies according 
to the width of the card. The usual number for forty-eight inch 
cards is forty, but with smaller ends and wider cards, the number 
runs somewhat higher. For a sixty inch card, the number of 
doublings runs as high as sixty. The illustration shown at Fig. 
80 shows the method of laying the slivers on the apron of the 
Apperly feed. The pulley 7 carries the belt 3, which travels 
across the apron in a diagonal direction. Attached to this belt is 
the dog 4, which is about three inches long and works in the slot 
of the carrier 5. The carrier works upon the shaft 6. The sliver 
1 passes through the rolls 2, and is laid on the feed apron by the 
motion given to the carrier 5 by the belt 3. 

In Fig. 81 the feed rolls of the card are shown at 12; also the 
wipe roll at 13. The carrying aprons 1 carry the stock, which is 
laid transversely across them, to the feed rolls. The carrier 5 



138 



I 




0H 

0-1 
P3 ^ 



PS =« 
W u 

« '^ 
O '^ 

« I 

Q '^ 
g 

K 
U 

K 
O 
u 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



123 



travels on the rod 6. Two latches marked 8 in Fig. 80 are lifted 
by the carrier and fall down into the loop formed by the sliver 
when the carrier returns, and thus hold it from drawing back as 
the next layer is placed on the apron. Apron 1 should travel 
just fast enough to lay the slivers close together, yet not slow 
enough to crowd them. 

The speed of the apron is controlled by the gear on the doffer 
shaft of the finisher card, which will drive the feed roll and apron 
faster or slower as desired. A larger gear will drive them faster 
and a smaller one will drive them slower. The changing of this 
gear will not change the amount of wool fed to the finisher, or the 
roving, but merely changes the speed of the feed rolls and feed 
apron. 

The gear 17 is driven from the side shaft of the finisher card 
and is fastened to the bottom feed roll of the Apperly feed. On 
the same shaft is a gear 16, which drives a smaller gear 14^ and 




Pig. 81. Plan of Apperly Feed. 

this in turn drives the gear 15 on the apron roll shaft. The apron 
rolls turn in the direction of the feed rolls, thus causing the aprons 
to carry the stock forward. 

The outside bands are made of leather and are perforated with 
short wires which keep the stock straight on the other bands or 
aprons, which are usually of a heavy woven cotton cloth. The 



139 



124 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

two spike straps 10 serve to more effectually keep the stock straight 
on the aprons, in fact this is their special office. To facilitate this 
work they are equipped with sharp wires about 1^ inches long and 
travel in the same direction and at the same speed as the wool on 
the aprons. As each layer of wool goes forward, it is taken by 
these spike straps which hold the ends and prevent the natural con- 
traction of the slivers. The gear 11 on the spike strap shaft is 
driven from the gear on the apron roll. 

When this feed is used there is always a waste end on each 
side of the condenser, caused by the doubling of the sliver at each 
end as shown at B in Fig. 81. The roving from these two ends is 
always heavier, so, of course, threads made from this roving would 
be heavier than the rest of the yarn. 

Stripping the Cards. After running for some time the cloth- 
ing of cards becomes filled with short fibers and much of the refuse 
matter which is removed in the carding process. In some in- 
stances, the card becomes so filled with this refuse that the oper- 
ation of carding is seriously affected. To remove this matter, the 
cards must be cleaned or stripped. When the card is to be 
stripped, the belts are thrown off and the stripping performed by 
means of hand cards, similar to those described in the early part 
of worsted carding. 

The first breaker card requires more cleaning than the second 
breaker card, and the second breaker card requires more cleaning 
than the finisher card. The reason for this is that as the wool ad- 
vances from one machine to another, much of the dirt is being 
constantly removed. Generally speaking, the first breaker should 
be cleaned every day. However, much time is saved by cleaning 
the main cylinder doffer one day, and cleaning the whole card the 
next day. The second breaker may be cleaned every other day, 
while two strippings a week are sufficient for the finisher card. 

The doffers of all the cards should be given especial attention 
and the ring doffers of tUe finisher card sliould receive almost con- 
stant care. The first operation is to disconnect the feed rolls, and 
allow the card to run for several minutes in order that as much of 
the stock as possible may be run through. The belts are then re- 
moved and the fancy workers and strippers are taken to a rack and 
cleaned with a hand card or comb. The main cylinder and doffer 



140 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



125 




12(5 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

are necessarily stripped in their bearings, as are also the lickerins 
and tumblers. Before connecting the feed rolls it is a good plan 
to allow the card to run for a few minutes after cleaning in order 
to remove loose particles of refuse. The settings should also be 
looked Over very carefully. The wool is then allowed to enter 
by the feed rolls being connected, and after the sliver has attained 
its correct weight, the card needs little more attention until the 
next day. 

In stripping the ring doffer of the finisher card, a special 
hand card should be used, as this is perhaps the most delicate 
operation of cleaning in the card room. 

Grinding. As explained under the subject of grinding in 
worsted carding, there are two kinds of points obtained in this 
process. The statements made under that heading apply equally 
well in the present case. If the cards are properly set and given 
proper care, very little grinding is necessary, for it is undoubtedly 
a fact that a large amount of card clothing is spoiled by grinding 
too often, and by over-grinding. 

The main cylinder and doffer are ground in their own bear- 
ings, the bearings of the grinder being bolted to brackets on the 
frame of the card. When grinding the cylinder its direction is 
reversed in order to grind against the back of the teeth, as ex- 
plained in grinding worsted cards. 

The speed of the doffer should be increased, when grinding, 
by putting a pulley on its shaft and driving it by means of a belt 
from the main cylinder shaft. The grinder may be driven from 
pulleys fastened to the stripper shafts of the card. Great care 
should be used to have the grinder adjusted properly, so one side 
of the cylinder will not be over-ground. The doffer should be 
moved a little distance from the cylinder wKen grinding. 

Workers, strippers, fancy, and tumbler, are not ground in 
their bearings, as in the case of a main cylinder and doffer of the 
card, but are taken to a grinding frame such as the one illustrated 
in Fig. 82. It will be noted that this machine consists of a frame 
upon which is mounted a traverse grinding wheel. Two rolls may 
be ground simultaneously as shown at Fig. 64 by putting one or. 
each side of the grinding roll. Pulleys are fastened to the shafts 



142 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 127 

of the rolls by set screws, and are driven by means of a belt from 
the bottom shaft of the grinding frame. 

Imperfect Roving. In the general consideration of woolen 
carding it was stated that careful attention should be given the 
carding operation as the roving from the finisher card and con- 
denser goes direct to the spinning frame, and there is no opportu- 
nity to correct defects made in carding. 

Perhaps the most common imperfection in rovings are the 
thick places called twits. These places cause uneven yarn and 
consequently uneven cloth. There are many causes which produce 
uneven roving; twits, in some instances, being the direct result of 
having the scouring liquor at too high temperature. Careless oil- 
ing before carding is a prolific cause of imperfections, as is also 
poor setting of the parts of the card and defective card clothing. 
However, if the various parts of the card are kept in good work- 
ing order, the wool fed evenly, the proper grade of w^ool used for 
the size of roving required, and the cards not "crowded," there will 
be very little defective work. 



143 




GILL BOX WITH BALLING HEAD 

Piatt Bros. & Co. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED 

SPINNING 



PART III 



PREPARING 



While most of the wools used in the manufacture of worsted 
yarns are carded, there are some long stapled varieties in the manu- 
facture of which carding gives place to Preparing. 

The operation of preparing consists in subjecting the wool to the 
operation of a number of machines, termed gill boxes, which arrange 
the threads in the parallel order characteristic of worsted yarns; and, 
unlike carding, it does not reduce the average length of the fibers to 
any extent. Fig 83 shows a representative gill box, and will be 
explained later. 

There are, perhaps, no two processes in worsted manufacturing 
for attaining the same end, which differ so widely in principle and 
practice as do carding and preparing; yet the results are so similar 
that in a medium quality wool it is doubtful if an expert could tell 
whether the wool had been carded or prepared. Preparing is suitable 
only for long wools, while carding is for shorter grades. 

Preparing, like finishing gilling, which will be taken up at the 
proper time, is a continuous process of combing. The essential 
parts of each machine are very simple; and for consideration of their 
principles, it is best to regard them quite apart from the mechanism 
which moves them. Every gill box has front and back rolls and a set 
of fallers, as shown at Fig. 84. The action of the machine depends 
entirely upon the relative speeds of these three parts. The motion 
of the rolls is rotary, and that of the fallers is horizontal, but all three 
move the wool forward in the same direction. To compare their 
action, an experiment will be tried : 

Assume that the back rolls A are running with a piece of tape 
between them, and that they draw one yard in' 1\ minutes. The 



145 



130 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



fallers B — which are steel bars in which pins are set — would draw 
six inches in the same period of time, while the front rolls C would 
draw no less than 36 inches. This relative amount of speed is termed 
drajty and the proportions taken are suitable for the first preparing box. 
Drafts. The size of the essential parts and their relative speeds 
vary for each consecutive machine in a set of preparing machines, 
but in all gill boxes the front rolls move faster than the fallers, and the 



^^^^^^^^HP9~9HiB^PBI^^^^B^^^^^| 


H 




llh''i;.'^i 1^ 


1 


^^' . \^^ J:ji# 


-J J - bJ ^' ' T ^ 


l^m 


■^■fe-^.C!^*P^ * '' ^:,;^'* r;*-^ 


»»— ■ / ■■-■■ *■ . »>r^^ 


1 



Fig. 83. Type of Gill Box. 

fallers move faster than the back rolls. The relation of the speed of 
the fallers to the speed "of back rolls will be called the hack draft; that 
of the front rolls to the fallers will be called the fi'ont draft, and that 
of the front rolls to the back rolls will be called the total draft. 

Tabulating the figures used in the above experiment according 
to this explanation we have the following : 

Back Rolls deliver 1 yard in 1^ minutes. 

Fallers deliver 6 yards in H minutes. 

Front Rolls deliver 36 yards in H minutes. 
Therefore, the back draft is six to one, the front draft also is six to one; 



146 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



131 



and the total draft is thirty-six to one. This is further proved in the 
gearing calculations. 

In all fine wool gill boxes, however, the back draft is so small 
that very often there is little difference between the sum and the 
multiple of the two drafts, hence the principle is not always clearly 
understood. For instance, a gill box for fine wool might have a back 





idiA666(iiiA66 



Fig. 84. 

draft of one and one-quarter, and a front draft of four, which would 
give a total draft of five (Ij X 4 = 5.) If the two drafts are added 
the sum would be five and one-quarter (1| + 4 = 5j), showing a 
difference of only one-quarter. 

Another machine might have a back draft of one and one-half 
and a front draft of four, which would give a total draft of six 
(1^ X 4 = 6). If, in this case, the front and back drafts were added, 
the sum would be five and one-half (1^ + 4 = 5^), which gives a 
difference of one-half. 

These examples are given merely to forcibly impress the fact that 
the total draft of all gill boxes is the product of the front and back 
drafts multiplied together. As may be seen by reference to Table 10, 
the drafts are much larger for the preparing operations. 

TABLE 10 

SET OF LONG WOOL PREPARING, BACKWASH, AND FINISHING 

GILL BOXES 





Back Rolls 




Front Rolls 














Dia. 




Dia. 




o 


,cl • 


Drafts 








a 

o 




9 

o 




a 




























o 


o 


!3 U 


o 


o 


1^ u 


^ u 


d 


c3 


?~t 


o 




t^ 


m 


fe ft 


E^ 


M 


fe ft 


^c« 


« 


m 

6 
6 
4 
3 


6 
6 
4 
4 


H 


1st sheeter 


6 
6 
6 
5 


3J 
3" 
3 


4 
4 
4 

5 


5 
5 
5 
5 


3| 

¥ 

3 


3 
3 

4 
4 


IJ 
1 

r 


24 
24 
23 

22 


36 


2nd ■' 


36 


3rd can box . . . 


16 


4th " " 


12 


6tli " " 


U 


3 


5 


5 


2A 


5 


i 


21 


21 


4 


10 


after 
























6 th backwash 


4i 


3 


5 


5 


2A 


5 


1 


20 


2+ 


4 


9 


7th " 


i 


3 


5 


5 


2A 


5 




20 


2} 


4 


9 


8th 


4 


3 


5 


o 


3i 


5 


i 


20 


2- 


4 


9 


finishing 
























3 gill boxes 


3 


2i 


6 


4 


aj 


6 


i"^ 


20 


aj 


4 


9 



Ratch means distance between back and front rolls (center to center). 



147 



132 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



The particulars given in the table are from a set of preparing 
gill boxes for long wool. The drafts given may be taken as a fair 
average although they would, of course, be varied according to the 
quality of the wool being prepared. It will be noted that the back 
draft is the greatest at the first gill box, steadily decreasing as the wool 




O iftu'^imiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiHiii i.jiiiiiin'n.niiiiii 

mil)llllll BmnTIimiy ■iH mit iiiiiiiiiiiiii]iii mmi , iiii M iiiiirii i i iima ii iiM ii 'n n 




advances, until it has 'been reduced to two and one-quarter at the 
sixth box, which immediately follows the back-washing. The total 
draft varies slightly more than the back draft, while the front draft 
only changes from six to four throughout the ten processes. 

The plan of a machine which is sometimes used to increase the 
drafting power of each machine and so reduce the number of machines 
necessary is shown at Fig. 85. Each of these machines has two sets 



148 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 133 



of fallers and screws, as shown at Fig. 86, while the ordinary gill box 
has but one set of fallers and screws, as shown at Fig. 84. The speed 
of all gill boxes, however, is limited to the number of fallers that can 
be safely dropped, from the upper to the lower screw, per minute. 
One hundred twenty is the maximum number for one and one-quarter 
inch fallers, so one hundred multiplied by one and one-quarter is the 
unit of production for the fallers in the second screw C. There are 
three drafts, each of four to one, in this box, therefore the front rolls 
will turn out twenty-four yards in one and one-half minutes. The 





\W B C W> 

A D 

Fig. 86. Diagram of Fi'OHt and Back Rolls and Fallers. 

first set of fallers B will only drop one-quarter of one hundred twenty, 
or thirty per minute. Tabulating the above gives the following : 

Back Rolls A, output 13^ inches per 1^ minutes. 
First Fallers B, output Ih yards per H minutes. 
Second Fallers C, output 6 yards per 1^ minutes. 
Front Rolls D, output 24 yards per Ih minutes. 

We will assume that in both types of box the first fallers fix the amount 
of wool fed up; and in that case the weight coming through the back 
rolls could be no more with two sets of fallers than with one set. This 
box has advantages for some classes of work but is not used to as 
large an extent as the single box. 

Referring to the plan of this machine shown in Fig. 85 the parts 
are as follows: A is the pulley on the main shaft B, which, through 
the gears C and D, drives the shaft E, which in turn drives the screws 
F through the bevel gears G and H. The gear J is on the end of the 
shaft E, and drives the front rolls through two gears of one hundred 
and forty-eight teeth respectively. There is a gear of twenty-two 
teeth on the front roll shaft, which drives the shaft L through two gears 
of one hundred teeth each. The back screws M are driven through 
the bevel gears N and O. There is a gear P on one end of the shaft 
L which, through a chain of gears, drives the back roll R. The apron 
roll is driver by a gear on the end of the front roll shaft. 



149 



134 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



To go more into the details of the preparing operation refer to 
the elevation shown in Fig. 87 which is a single gill box; the first of 




the set. The front and back rolls and fallers of this machine are 
shown at Fig. 84. 

All wool that is to be prepared is straightened out by hand before 
it is put onto the feed sheet D. The operative is expected to lay the 



150 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



135 



fibers as nearly parallel as possible, and at right angles to the back 
rolls. In this manner the wool passes through the rolls A, and when 
the fallers rise, the pins pass through the wool. As each faller rises 
it moves steadily away from the back rolls in the screw B, and as it 
travels sixteen inches before dropping into the lower screw to be carried 
back, any staple under thirteen inches long will be combed its entire 
length. 

The locks of wool are in many cases so matted that the fibers 
would be broken if the fallers carried many pins, and as the purpose 

TABLE 11 

PARTICULARS OF FALLERS 





Pitch 


Fallers 


Pins 


Pinned 


Fallers dropping 




of 














Screw 


Up 


Down 


Rows 


Per 

inch 


Length 


over 
16 


per minute 


1st Sheeter 


11 


14 


6 


2 


2 


P-2 


120 


2nd 


u 


14 


6 


2 


3i 


ii-n 


16 


130 


3rd Can Box 


1 


14 


6 


2 


U 


n-n 


16 


140 


4th " •' 


7 


16 


7 


3 


5 


H-n 


16 


150 


5th " " 


J 


16 


7 


2 


6 


li-19 


16 


180 


6th Backwash 


6 


16 


7 


1 


6 


IJ-IS 


16 


190 


7th Can Box 


5 


16 


7 


2 


8 


U-l| 


16 


200 


8th " " 

9th Finisher 

10th " 


s 
Iff 


16 
16 
16 


7 
7 
7 


2 
2 
2 


8 
12 
14 


li-if 


16 
16 
16 


Inn ) Double 
^"" W^hread 
^^^ ) Screws 



of the first box is to straighten rather than to open the wool, many 
fallers have only a single row of pins placed half an inch apart. 

As soon as the staple is free from the back roll, it is carried along 
by the fallers until it reaches the front rolls C. These rolls are trav- 
eling thirty-six inches for every six inches that the fallers travel, and 
as soon as they get hold of any fiber, they pull it through the fallers 
at the same relative speed as the fallers moved through it when it was 
held by the back rolls. 

From the front rolls the thin film of wool, which is one thirty- 
sixth the thickness of that which was fed to the back rolls, is carried 
along by the sheet E until it touches the upper sheet F. The film of 
wool passes around the sheet F, until a lap is formed which is thick 
enough to be fed to the next box. As the drafts of the two boxes are 
the same the amount of wool should be the same, so thirty-six revolu- 
tions around the sheet will be required before the lap is thick enough 
to be fed to the second "sheeter". 



151 



136 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

The process in the second box is in all respects like the first, in 
fact there will be no further need to refer to the action of the faller 
pins on the wool as in all gill boxes the combing and drafting are on 
the same principles as those explained, the only difference being an 
increased number of pins in the fallers, and the relative speeds at 
which the essential parts move- 
Fluted Rolls. Before taking up the calculations for drafts, the 
output of the front and back rolls, which are fluted, must be carefully 
considered. There is no method of calculation that will give accurate 
results, as is proved by comparing the result obtained by any method 
of calculation with the actual output of the rolls. However, the 
absence of a formula by which the output may be calculated is not 
very serious as regards the draft, for both front and back rolls, being 
fluted, are affected in a similar manner. There is a leather apron 
which runs between the front rolls preventing the wool from sinking 
so deeply in the flutes. 

Probably the first rolls used in gill boxes were round and smooth 
and the change was made because the smooth rolls did not grip the 
wool firmly enough. Many devices were tried before it was found 
that a system of fluting the rolls so the prominences of one would fit 
into the hollows of the other, was the best method. 

An illustration of this principle is shown in Fig. 88, and it will be 
seen that these rolls must have enormous holding power. There is 
however, one feature of these rolls which demands attention: When 
they are running fast under normal pressure and drawing only a thin 
film of wool, the friction, caused by the flutes pressing against each 
other, will cut the wool. 

This is overcome by running an endless apron between the front 
rolls, as these run at a greater speed than the back rolls, and have a 
thinner film of wool passing between them. The leather, in addition 
to preventing the fibers from being cut, acts as a cushion against which 
the flutes of the upper roll can firmly grip the v/ool, and so increases 
the drawing power of the rolls. 

Calculations. In all calculations, it should be remembered that 
the presence of the leather apron affects the output of the machine 
and that the leather apron is used only between the front rolls. To 
understand the subject thoroughly, it will be best to consider the action 
of a pair of smooth round rolls. Such a pair of three-inch rolls 



152 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 137 

running at a speed of sixty revolutions per minute would deliver five 
hundred sixty-six inches per minute. (3 X 3 1^ X 60 = 566.) If a 
leather apron were running between the rolls it would be delivered 
at exactly the same speed ; and if these rolls, with a leather apron on 
them., were drawing a sliver they would deliver just five hundred 
sixty-six inches per minute. 

With the fluted rolls the output under each of these conditions 
would be different, and in addition, the output would change according 
to the thickness or bulk of the sliver running between them. The 
output of a fluted roll is often stated as three 
and one-seventh times the diameter of the 
mean line D (shown in Fig. 88), which lies 
half way between the top and the base of the 
flutes. Wliile this may be correct in some in- 
stances, it is not reliable for all cases. In the 
estimation of the writer the output at each rev- 
olution of the rolls cannot be much less than 
three and one-seventh times the extreme di- 
ameter of the rolls ; or in other words, the 
output cannot be less than a line drawn from 

point to point of all the flutes on the circum- 

. Fig. 88. 

ference of the roll. In the following calcula- 
tions the output is calculated as the extreme diameter multiplied by 
three and one-seventh. 

If a thin tape were run between two bare steel-fluted rolls under 
heavy pressure, the output for each revolution would nearly equal the 
total length of the line E, which represents the outside of the driving 
roll, and equals five times the diameter of the mean line D. If a thick 
leather apron were used, which, of course, could not be pressed so 
deeply into the flutes, the length of sliver delivered at each revolution 
would be much nearer to three and one-seventh times the extreme 
diameter; so the output of the rolls, when the leather apron is run 
between them, is less than the output when the apron is not used. 

The draft calculations in preparing and other gill boxes are very 
nearly accurate because the slivers passing between the back rolls are 
many times the thickness or bulk of the sliver passing between the 
front rolls. The thick sliver presses the back rolls apart and affects 



153 




138 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



the output to about the same extent as the leather apron and sliver 
.combined affect the front rolls. 

Front Rolls. The front rolls of the gill box and the method of 
applying pressure to them are shown in Fig. 89. It will be noted that 
the lower roll A revolves in the long bearings B, which are fixed to the 
framework of the machine. The upper roll C rests upon roll A, and 
pressure is applied to it by the springs D, which are regulated by the 
wheels F. The wheels press against the hinged lever G in such a 
manner that the pressure is the same on both ends of the roll. 




Fig. 



Device for Applying Pressure to Rolls. 



In all gilling processes, including preparing, it is customary for 
the leather apron to run over the lower front roll and down under the 
wooden carrier roll. In drawing boxes, where an apron is also used, 
it is usually on the upper roll with the carrier roll above it. In the 
former method the fallers are more visible, and may be removed much 
easier. 

As an example of the method of finding the draft of a gill box, 
the draft will be calculated from the plan and side elevation shown in 
Fig. 90. The diameter of the bottom front and back rolls (which are 
the drivers) is three and one-half inches, which equals approximately 
eleven inches circumference ; and the pitch of the screw is one and one- 
eighth inches, single thread.. 

Referring to Fig. 90, A is the back shaft on which are placed the 



154 




►^"MW^Pf 



> 

VI 

Q 
H 

a 
o 

g 

>> 
tn 
o 

Q 

<! O 
O =^ 



03 E 
O ^ 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



m 



bevel gears BB of 22 teeth. These bevel gears mesh with the bevel 
gears CC on the screw shaft, which also have 22 teeth. DD are the 
top screws ; E is the bottom back roll ; F is the bottom front roll ; and 
GG are the calender rolls, which take up the sliver as it is delivered by 
the front rolls. H is a gear' of 25 teeth on the front roll shaft; J J are 
two intermediate gears; and K is a gear of 15 teeth on one end of the 
back shaft A. On the other end of the back shaft, there is a gear L, 
of 24 teeth, which drives the inside stud gear of 75 teeth; which in 
turn gives motion to the gears N, O, and P of 18 80 and 25 teeth 




Fig 



Plan of Gill Box. 



respectively The gear P is directly underneath the gear R, of 75 
teeth, which is on the back roll shaft. The gear S on the front roll 
shaft drives the calender rolls through the gears W, Z, and Z. 

Thus it will be evident that the screws are driven by the bevel 
gears BB meshing with the bevel gears CC. The front roll F is driven 
by the gear K, which is on the back shaft A, through the intermediate 
gears JJ and the gear H on the end of the front roll shaft. The back 
roll E is driven from the back shaft A by the gear L through the stud 
gears. 

To find the front draft: Multiply the circumference of the bottom 
roll (11) by the number of teeth in the gear K (15) and the bevel gear 
C (22), and divide the product by the number of teeth in the gear H 



155 



140 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

(35), multiplied by the number of teeth in the bevel gear B (22) and 
the pitch of the screw (1|). 

11 X 15 X 22 _ ^ ^ 
35X22X11 ^' 
Therefore, the front draft is a little more than 4|-. 
To find the hack draft: Multiply the pitch of the screw (1|), 
bevel gear B (22), stud gear M (75), stud gear O (80), and gear R 
on back roll shaft (75) together, and divide by the bevel gear C (22), 




Fig. 91. Double Stud Gearing. 



stud gears N and P (18 & 25), circumference of back roll E (11), 
and gear L (24). 

U X 22 X 75 X 80 X 75 



= 4 



YJ- 



22 X 18 X 25 X 11 X 24 

To find the total draft : Multiply the front and back drafts to- 
gether. 42VX4/^ = 17f 

The drafts for all gill boxes are found in the same manner; the 
only difference being in the different sizes of rolls, pitch of screws, and 
gearing. For machines with smaller back drafts, a double stud gear, 
shown in Fig. 91, is used to drive the back rolls, in place of the three 
stud gearing shown at Fig. 89 and used in the above calculation, 

BACKWASHING 

The sliver doffed from the worsted card or from the preparing 
gill boxes, is somewhat discolored in consequence of the oil used 
after scouring, which makes a considerable amount of dirt adhere 
to the fiber. It is very desirable to remove all such impurities and 



156 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



141 



thoroughly cleanse the wool of all grease and foreign matters before 
reaching the gilling process. (The operation cf running long staple 
wools through preparing gill boxes is not classed as gilling.) This 
is done on what is known as a backwashing machine. 

TABLE 12 
OUTPUT OF PREPARING BOXES 





Ozs. of wool 
put up per 


No. of 


Ozs. per 


Total 


Ozs in 10 yards 

of resulting 

sliver 




yard of feed 
sheet 


ends up 


10 yards 


Draft 


1st Sheeter 


56 






36 


15^ 


2ud " .... 


56 




— 


36 


16* 


3rd Can box . . 


48 


— 





16 


30 


4th " " .. 


— 


9 


30 


12 


22| 


5th " " .. 


— 


8 


22i 


10 


18 


6th Backwash 


— 


' 


18 


9 


16 



The principle of the backwasher is so simple that Httle explanation 
of the washing and drying which compose it, is necessary. The 
illustration shown in Fig. 92 represents a diagram of a backwashing 
machine. 

As the process is intended to remove the impurities from the woolj 
there are two small bowls, marked D and E^ each of which has a pair 
of squeeze rolls to press out the suds after immersion. The lower roll 
C is made of brass, while the upper roll is of iron and is tightly wrapped 
with wool. The amount of dirt in the wool is usually so small that only 
the best soap is added to the water in the bowls. As the wool is 
always treated in the sliver form there can be no agitation by forks 
or other means, therefore squeezing is the only means of removing 
the dirt. 

The feed rolls A have the same surface speed as the squeeze 
rolls. They draw the sliver, which is marked W, from the cans and 
pass it to the submerged brass roll B, as shown in the upper bowl E. 
Ordinarily, no impurities are removed until the wool reaches the 
large squeeze rolls C, but in some cases, where the wool is unusually 
dirty, one pair of squeeze rolls is not considered sufficient. To 
increase the washing power some bowls are made with two or more 
small brass rolls as arranged at B, in the lower bowl D, instead of 
having but one immersion roll. In an arrangement of this sort it 
would be too much strain for the wool to pull these rolls around, so 



157 



142 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




16tt 




? 5 
fa - 






WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 143 

the shafts of the lower rolls are extended through a hole in the side of 
the bowl and are driven by a chain. Pressure is applied to the top roll 
by dead weighting. 

The marked affinity which soap has for w^ool is very obvious in 
the backwashing process. The suds in the bottom bowl should be 
strong enough to remove the dirt, and the top bowl should be for the 
purpose of rinsing the wool. When wool is run through bowls made 
up in this manner it is found that the lower bowl loses most of its 
soap, which is transferred to the upper bowl. So long as the upper 
bowl contains but little soap it will remove all that carried from the 
lower bowl by the wool, but as it gradually increases in strength, 
much of the soap is carried through the final squeeze rolls by the wool, 
if the water is not renewed. All the soap which passes the final 
squeeze rolh is dried on the wool by the cylinders G, and in extreme 
cases will affect the "handle'' of the wool and tend to saponify some 
of the oil applied in the gill box. 

The simplest way to keep the liquor in the bowls uniform, is to 
continuously run hot water into the upper bowl at such a speed that 
the soap strength and temperature will remain constant. By means 
of an overflow the excess of soap will flow down to the first bowl, and 
the occasional addition of a little soap to the lower bowl will keep it at 
the desired strength. The temperature of the liquor should never 
exceed 120°F. or some of the inherent properties of the wool will be 
destroyed, causing trouble in subsequent processes. 

The appearance of the wool may be improved by adding coloring 
matters, but this does not benefit the wool in any way. Such practices 
are resorted to, however, by the manufacturers of "tops" or balls of 
wool. There are undoubtedly instances where the over-use of 
cleansing agents and too high temperature in an effort to give the 
wool the best possible "color" has very materially reduced the value 
of the wool. 

Drying. From the last pair of squeeze rolls the wool goes to the 
cylinders G to be dried. 

The cylinders are arranged in such a manner that first the upper 
and then the under side of the sliver is in contact with the 
cylinders. This is shown in Fig 92. Some backwashing machines 
are equipped with a fan which drives the hot air through the slivers. 
This is very useful when thick slivers are being handled. When a 



161 



144 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



145 




fan is used the cylinders are enclosed, which assists in drying the 
wool with as little heat as possible, so for this reason the use of a fan 
and enclosed cylinders is an excellent arrangement. 

Oiling. As the wool leaves the cylinders of the dryer, oil is 
again applied; the quantity being regulated according to the require- 
ments of the wool. It is necessary to have the oil applied evenly and 
constantly while the machine is in motion, and to stop when the 
machine is stopped. One of the sim- 
plest and best devices is to have a tin roll 
revolving in a trough of oil as shov/n in 
Fig. 94. As the roll A revolves, a thin 
film of oil is brought up on its surface, 
which is scraped off by a number of 
strips of tin B, which are hinged on a 
wire, and one end of which rests on the 
surface of the roll A. The oil is thus transferred to this strip of tin 
or conductor, as it is sometimes called, and drops on to the wool. 
The amount of oil used can be regulated by increasing or decreasing 
the number of conductors. 

After leaving the cylinders the wool passes through a gill box 
attached to the front of the backwashing machine. This gill box is 
similar to those described under the heading "Preparing", therefore 
it is unnecessary to go into detail regarding it. In Table 10 it is the 
sixth gill box, there being five preparing gill boxes which precede it; 
but for carded wools this is the first gilling process through which the 
wool is passed. 

The shorter and finer fibers of carded wools make small front 
and back rolls and finer pins in the fallers necessary to hold the wool. 
The particulars given below are suitable for fine and medium wools. 





Back Rolls 


Flutes 
per 
inch 


PitclL 

of 
Screws 


Fallers 


Front Rolls 


Drafts 




Bottom 


Top 


Rows 

of 
Pins 


Fin 
per 
inch 


Bottom 


Top 


Back 


Front 


Total 


Medium 
Fine 


3 

2i 


3 

3 


5 
5 


1 


2 
2 


14 
15 


3 

2-1 


3 
3 


^ 


6 
4 


9 
6 



The drafts for short fine carded wools are, of course, much 
smaller than for long prepared wools. There is a rule among prac- 
tical men that the draft should be equal to the length of the wool, and 



je§ 



146 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

in most cases this is true, although long wools will sometimes stand 
much more draft than the length of their fibers. 

As shown in Table 10, the wool is passed through two more gill 
boxes after the backwash gill box and before the combing operation. 
These operations are to open the wool thoroughly, which will prevent 
many of the long fibers being combed out with the short fibers or 
"noil." 

COMBING 

There are two objects to be attained in combing: first, to remove 
the short fibers present in the wool; and second, to lay the long fibers 
in parallel positions. 

Gill boxes, as previously explained, produce a uniform ribbon or 
sliver in which the fibers are parallel, but if examined closely it will 
be found to contain all lengths of fibers which, of course, unfits it for 
utilization in worsted yarn construction. For this reason the wool 
is divided in the combing operation into two distinct classes; the long 
iibers, which would be observed in closely examining a ribbon or 
sliver from the gill-box, are parallelized and used to form what is 
called the top, which is later drawn out and made into worsted yarn; 
while the short wavy fibers, termed noil, are separated and used in 
the manufacture of woolen goods. 

The worsted thread is the result of using the straightest and 
longest fibers contained in the wool, whatever that may be; hence, 
the importance of the combing operation. A large amount of gilling 
will form a sliver, in which all the fibers are parallel, but to form the 
basis of a lustrous thread with a smooth uniform surface, something 
more is essential. The fibers which retain their crimpy character- 
istics, and resist the action of the gill boxes, must be extracted, conse- 
quently one of the main functions of the combing machine may be 
defined as that of separating the short and curly fibers from the long 
straight fhers. 

There are several classes of combing machines, but the principal 
makes are the nij) motion and the circular motion. 

LISTER OR NIP COMB 

The Nip Comb represents the first principle which was perfected 
to the point where wool could be successfully combed by machinery; 
and the perfection of this machine undoubtedly exercised a great 



lf4 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



147 




148 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



influence on the worsted industry of the world. The short, fine wools 
were seldom used for worsted at the time the nip comb was invented, 
which is, perhaps, why the skill of the inventors was directed toward 
the perfection of a machine to comb long wools, mohairs, alpacas, 
etc., which were principally in use at that tinie. And that is what the 
Lister Comb is; a long wool comb. 

Construction. The most important parts of the machine are 
shown in Figs. 95 and 96. A^ are the feed rolls: A^ are fallers; B 
is the nip; C, carrying comb; D, circle; and E are the drawing off 
rolls. 

The wool is fed into the machine from cans through the feed rolls 
A^, and encounters the curved fallers A^. It is pressed down into the 



ILA' 



tr 





q_^ JBIilM 



Elevation 



Fig. 96. Parts of Lister Comb. 

pins of the fallers by a convex roll, Z, the surface of which conforms 
to the shape of the fallers. 

There are usually twenty-eight fallers used in the machine, each 
having three rows of pins of eighteen, sixteen and twelve pins per 
inch respectively, which are set over sixteen inches. The fallers are 
heated by gas or steam to make the wool easier to work. The wool 
is carried forward by the fallers to the nip B. 

Up to this point the lister comb is similar to a gill box, except 
that the fallers are curved, while in all gill boxes they are straight. 
But from this point there is a great change; for, in place of front rolls 
the lister comb has what is termed a nip. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



140 



Nip. The nip, shown in detail in Fig. 97, and B in Figs. 95 
and 96. consists of a swinging frame with two jaws marked 1 and 2. 
It swings from the shaft K and is actuated by the cam G, which 
opens and closes the jaws 1 and 2. The backward and forward 




Fig. 97. Front Elevation of Nip. 

motion is derived from the stud L, on the gear N, through the crank 
M. (Shown in Fig. 95). 

In Fig. 95 the nip is shown at B, close up to the fallers, which is 
the farthest position backward; and at BMn contact with the carrying 
comb C, which is the farthest point forward. Between these points 
it has an easy swing, actuated, as stated above, by the stud L and 
crank M. As the nip approaches the fallers, which are full of wool, 
the jaws 1 and 2 open by the action of the cam G. When the nip 
reaches the position shown at B in Fig. 95, the jaws come quickly 



167 



150 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

together, firmly gripping the fibers of wool which project from the 
fallers A^ 

As will be noted by reference to Fig. 97, the upper jaw 1 has a 
convex edge which corresponds to the concave edge of the lower jaw. 
This arrangement enables the nip to hold the wool fast until it has 
reached the second position B\ In moving forward, the nip draws 
the wool from the fallers. To this quick forward movement is due 
part of the combing action of the machine, for as the long fibers are 
drawn through the pins of the fallers, they leave behind any short 
wool that may be mixed with them, as the short wool does not projectfar 
enough from the pins of the fallers to be gripped by the jaws of the nip. 

When the jaws close on the wool projecting from the fallers, 
they hold various lengths of fibers, as nothing but the shortest fibers 
are left behind in the fallers. When the carrying comb places the 
wool on the circle it follows that all the short wool or Noil is thrown 
within the outer row of pins, if not within some of the other rows, and 
the fringe of long fibers, which project outside -of the circle pins, is 
straight and free from noil. 

Carrying Comb. When the nip reaches its second position B' 
(Fig. 95), it is met by the carrying comb C, whose long pins slightly 
press against the nip at the point marked P, while at the position 
marked Q the long pins of the carrying comb are about to enter the 
long projecting pins in the center row of the circle, and deposit on 
them the fringe of wool just taken from the nip. 

When the points of the pins in the carrying comb touch the nip 
at P, the carrying comb rises, and the pins run through the fringe of 
wool projecting from the nip. At this point the jaws open, releasing 
the wool, and the carrying comb moves forward, carrying on its pins 
the wool released by the nip. Upon reaching the position Q the 
peculiar motion of the carrying comb has turned it partly over so 
that its crescent shape (shown at Fig. 96) allows it to be in contact 
with the circle for its entire width. 

The wool is now dabbed down into the teeth of the circle by 
the brush H . and the carrying comb travels back to the nip for another 
load. The points of the pins on the carrying comb form a crescent- 
like outline, like that formed by the points of the faller pins. It has 
two rows of pins, four inches long and set fifteen to the inch. 

It will be valuable to review the description of the nip comb 



168 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 151 

given up to this point before taking up the calculations or drawing 
off motion. To form a clearer idea of the various parts, Figs. 95, 96, 
and 97 should all be referred to. A^ are the fluted feed rolls, 
three inches in diameter (say eleven inches in circumference) and 
correspond to the back rolls or feed rolls of a gill box. A^ are the 
fallers shown in Fig. 96, while in Fig. 95 only the screws are shown 
as this view is a side elevation. The to'p screw is f-inch pitch, and 
there are always nineteen fallers up in the top screw. Each faller 
has three rows of pins containing eighteen, sixteen and twelve per 
inch respectively. The width occupied by the pins is sixteen inches. 

The curved nip shown in Fig. 97 is eighteen inches wide and 
drav/s the wool from the fallers. The carrying comb C is also eighteen 
inches wide and contains fifteen pins, four inches long, to the inch. 

The comb circle D is forty-eight inches in diameter. It has five 
rows of pins set over f-inch with one or two rows of pins two and one- 
half inches long to receive the wool from the carrying comb. The 
first row of pins is set twenty per inch; second row nineteen per inch; 
third and fourth rows fifteen per inch; and, fifth row fourteen pins 
per inch. 

The drawing off rolls are marked E. They are two horizontal 
rolls, which, as the circle D revolves, catch the fringe of long stapled 
wool which projects from the outside row of pins of the circle. The 
ends of the fibers hang too low to be caught by the drawing off rolls, 
so just before the fibers reach the rolls they are gently raised up by 
the air pressure from a small fan, or by a mechanical stroker which 
guides the ends of the fibers into the nip of the rolls. 

This method of drawing off the wool from the circle requires 
special attention. The long and short fibers which compose the wool 
in the circle have the root end deep in the rows of pins and as they 
reach the rolls, which .are horizontal (see E, Fig. 96) and set at a 
tangent to the 'circle, the tips of the longest fibers are the first to be 
drawn out, and as the circle continues to revolve the medium fibers 
are drawn off near the point F, where the rolls come in close contact 
with the circles. The noil or shortest fibers are removed from the 
circle by steel knives set between the rows of pins. 

There is a cutting knife set between the drawing off rolls and 
circle at the end marked F. This knife, which is marked O, is to 
prevent any straggling fibers of noil from being drawn out after they 



169 



152 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

have passed the outer edge of the apron, and should receive careful 
attention. If the knife is set too far forward there will be an unnec- 
essarily heavy noil and less sliver or top, and if set too far back there 
is danger of too short fibers getting into the sliver. 

Calculations. The gearing is shown at Fig. 95. The rack is 
inside the circle which complicates the drive and makes necessary 
the use of two upright shafts RR, and the train of gears connected 
with them. With pulleys running at a speed of 190 revolutions per 
minute the speed of the circle would be approximately one revolution 

per minute. 

190 X 28 X 15 X 20 X 20 X 17 340 

60 X 20 X 38 X 35 X 347 ^ 347 
The diameter of the circle being forty-eight inches the actual 

speed of the circle would be: 

340 
48 X Of X 047 

which equals approximately 148 inches per minute. 

The fallers, nip, and carrying comb are all geared together by 
equal sized gears so that their motion is positive and they all move in 
unison. They are driven by a belt from the pulley Y, of fourteen 
inches diameter, to the pulley U which is ten inches in diameter. 

To find the number of fallers dropped, and oscillations of nip and 
carrying comb, per minute: 

190 X 28 X 14 X 22 10241 

60 X 10 X 72 ^ 270 
which equals approximately 38. 

As the pitch of the top screw is |-inch the speed at which the 
fallers travel would be 38 X f which equals approximately twenty- 
four inches per minute. 

The amount of wool passing through the feed rolls would be: 

10241 X 20 X 13 X 11* 00 6 • I, 

^ 270X60X80 = ^^^^ ^""^^' P^' ^^"^^*'- 
So it will be seen that there is practically no draft between the back 
rolls and the fallers. 

The output of the front or drawing off rolls E would be : 



190 X 28 X6f 



60 
which gives the comb a draft of 24yt 

Oo7 "T- ZZy-Q- = Z4yy 
Note: Circumference of fluted feed rolls. 



= 557 inches per minute. 



170 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 153 

The above calculations show that the circle makes approximately 
one revolution per minute, which gives a surface traverse of one hun- 
dred forty-eight inches per minute to the pins of the circle; while the 
nip and carrying comb will deliver to the circle thirty-eight fringes of 
wool, each sixteen inches wide, per minute. Each fringe of wool 
delivered to the circle will overlap the previous one twelve inches, 
so there will be four deliveries from the carrying comb while the circle 
is moving sixteen inches, or the width of the carrying comb. By 
this arrangement the blending power of the machine is largely in- 
creased and the sliver drawn from the circle will be more uniform 
than if only a single layer was deposited every sixteen inches. As 
four layers of wool nearly fill the pins to the points, constant dabbing 
by the brush H is necessary to keep the wool down in the pins. 

With suitable wool this comb will do excellent work and give 
a large production with very little attention; furthermore, it costs 
very little for repair of circles and brushes. However, the Noble 
comb has superseded it for combing short wools, though it still holds 
a secure place for combing long wools, mohairs and alpacas- 

NOBLE COMB 

Almost from the beginning of combing by machinery, the Noble 
or great circle comb, shown at Fig. 98, has proved itself the most 
valuable, and at present is used for combing all classes of wool. 
However, the Lister or nip comb is perhaps a better machine for 
extra long wool, mohair and alpaca, as stated in the explanation of 
that machine. 

In general design and principle, the Noble comb has undergone 
no changes for more than twenty years, but in two respects it has been 
materially improved; the first and more important of these improve- 
ments was the invention of a greatly accelerated dabbing brush, 
which increases the productive power of the machine about twenty 
per cent , while the second and more recent improvement was the intro- 
duction of ball bearings on which the carriage of the comb revolves 
(see Fig. 99), effecting a great saving in the power required to operate 
the machine. At the present time the combs are built much stronger 
than formerly; the legs or supports being many times heavier on the 
latest machines. 



171 



154 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



Construction. The principal parts of the Noble comb are as 
follows : 

(a) The large horizontal circle with rows of vertical pins. 

(6) Two small horizontal inner circles with rows of vertical 
pins. (The outer row of pins on the smaller circles touches the inner 
row of pins on the large circle.) 

(c) Two dabbing brushes, to drive the wool down into the pins 
of the large and small circles at the points where they come together. 




Fig. 



Noble Comb. 



(d) The vertical drawing-off rolls which draw away the sliver 
of long fibers. 

The principle of the Noble comb is unique in having comb 
circles as the only means of clearing the wool and taking out the noil 
or short curly fibers. To this simplicity of principle is due the success 
of the machine. It also differs from all other combs in that the 
revolving circle carries around with it, on a creel, the wool that is 
being combed. The wool is made up into balls before being put in 



172 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



155 



the creel of the comb. Each ball has four ends or slivers and is 
wound on a machine, termed a punch box or balling machine, speci- 
ally constructed for this purpose. A type of this machine is illus- 




Pig. 99. Ball Bearing for Carriage. 



trated at Fig. 100. The balling machine measures the length of 
sliver being wound into the ball, as it is necessary to have the length 
of sliver the same in all the balls. 



173 



156 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

As there are four slivers in each ball and eighteen balls in a set, 
there are seventy-two ends or slivers in a creel which are constantly 
being combed. This, of course, gives the machine great mixing 
power. The illustration, Fig. 101, shows the position of the circles 
which are the most important part of the machine. 

The large circle is forty-two and seven-eighths inches in diameter, 
measured on the points of the inside row of pins. The diameter 
of the small circles is sixteen inches, measured on the outside rows of 
pins. Both the large and small circles rest on racks. The outer 
one has two hundred sixty-four teeth, and the inner ones have ninety- 
four teeth each. They are coupled together through two small 




■ Fig. 130. LSalling Macliiue. 

shafts carrying gears of 10, 13, 16, and 11 teeth respectively, which 
gives the circles approximately the same surface speed. This means 
that at the point where the small circles come in contact with the large 
circle, they are practically stationary in regard to each other, and 
the wool can be dabbed down into both circles at one operation. 

The principle of the comb lies in the fact that the surfaces of the 
circles draw apart as they travel around, and so the wool, which is 



174 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



157 



dabbed down into the pins of the circles when they are close together, 
is combed as the distance increases between the pins of the circles. 

Thus it is on the separation of the circles that the efficiency of 
the comb depends, because all the short wool and knots are dabbed 
down, by the brush, into either the large or small circles. In fine 
circles with the pins set as close as forty-six per inch, there is a space 
of less than y-^g- of an inch between two pins, and as no knots or vege- 
table matter can get through these fine spaces, the fringes of wool, 
which hang from both circles after their separation, are quite free 
from knots. From this it will be understood that it is the size of the 




Fie. 101. Circles and Brushes. 



spaces between the pins and not the number of pins per inch that 
is essential to secure the best combed sliver. 

Referring to Fig. 102, which is a plan of the circles, it will be 
noted that after the large circle has traveled about one-quarter of a 
revolution, and the small circles have traveled nearly one-half of a 
revolution, the fringes of wool, which are hanging from the pins, reach 
the drawing off rolls N. The fibers are stroked forward so they will 
reach the nip of the rolls ends first, and as the circles revolve, the 
fibers in every succeeding portion of the fringe are drawn out of the 
pins by the drawing-off rolls, leaving behind all the wool that is too 
short to reach the nip of the rolls, and leaving within the rows of 
pins all knots and burrs. 

There is now nothing left in the small circles but a mixture of 
short wool and knots, which is termed noil; and as the circle revolves, 
this is lifted out of the pins by stationary inclines or knives at M. 



175 



158 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




This is performed by having a knife between each row of pins. When 

the noil is raised to the top of the pins, it falls over the edge of the 

circle into a funnel prepared for it, and the circle is then ready to be 

filled again when it reaches the point of contact with the large circle. 

There is only one point at which the pins of the two circles touch 

each other and as the sliver, pressed down into the pins at that point, 

is full of knots, some of the knots 

will be outside the pins of the circles, 

or rather in the space between the 

two circles, if the wool is dabbing 

on the pins at X or Y. 

This is a point which requires 

YM""^^^^-^ ^^^^^^M careful attention, for if the wool is 

dabbing on the pins at any other 

point than A (the point of contact), 

a large percentage of the knots and 
Fig. 103. Plan of Circles. ^^^^^ g^^^.^ ^.jj ^^^ ^^ between 

the rows of pins of the circles, and will be drawn off by the rolls N 
and form part of the comb sliver. The wool must be pressed into 
the pins at the exact point of contact, but the dabbing brush may 
extend over the point X to keep the wool from raising over the points 
of the pins as the circles separate. 

Dabbing Brushes. If the large circle, which is forty-two and 
seven-eighths inches in diameter between the inner row of pins, 
travels three and one-half revolutions per minute, the inner row of 
pins will move four hundred fifty-nine inches per minute, as will be 
shown in the calculations. With the dabbing brush mechanism 
running seven hundred fifty revolutions per minute the brush will 
strike the circles seven hundred fifty times per minute, so the circle 
would travel more than one-half inch for every dab of the brush. 
If wool were put in by the brush at one dab exactly at the point of 
contact, the next fibers would have traveled one-half an inch past the 
point of contact toward X before the brush came down again. In 
that one-half inch the circles would have separated slightly. 

Theoretically this would be enough space for the knots to get 
down between the circles and make imperfect work, and it is for this 
reason that it is necessary for the brushes to dab rapidly. From the 
above it will be understood why the value of the greatly accelerated 



176 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



159 



dabbing motion was so great to those using the Noble comb. The 
speed at which the machine may be run, and therefore the production 
of the machine, is dependent upon the speed of the dabbing brush. The 




wear of the bristles on the dabbing brush is also decreased by the 
increased speed of the brush. 

From the nature of the stroke imparted by the dabbing brush 
mechanism, the brush is in the pins of the circles for about one-quarter 



177 



160 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




of a revolution, ■which shows that the pins will move one-eighth of an 
inch through the bristles every time the brush is down. This of 
course cannot fail to entail enormous wear upon the brushes and the 
pins. 

Summarizing the above it will be understood that great attention 
should be, given to the rapid dabbing motions in order that every 
fiber of the wool may be pressed upon the pins within one-quarter 
of an inch of the point A in Fig. 102, and also that the traverse of the 
pins through the bristles may be as small as possible. 

The first dabbing motions were operated by a single crank pin 
and connecting rod which may have sufficed for the slow speed at 

which the combs were run at the 
time they were first invented, but 
the constant demand for greater 
production, which means higher 
speed, resulted in the invention 
of greatly improved motions. 
Fig. 104. Conductor. Perhaps the latest and best 

motion is one where the eccentric, which drives the brush, is bal- 
anced by having another eccentric carrying the second slide, which 
acts as a perfect counterpoise. As the brush and its slide descend, 
the balance slide rises, and vice versa. 

Conductors. During one-half of a revolution or from one small 
circle to the other the large circle completes a number of operations 
which must be followed closely. To understand all these movements, 
it is perhaps best to commence at the beginning. The balls of wool 
to be combed rest on the rolls F, Fig. 103, which hang from the outer 
edge of the rack, and they are, therefore, carried around, without the 
assistance of any further mechanism, at the same speed as the large 
circle. At every revolution of the comb a cam moves the rolls F, 
and unwinds the necessary amount of sliver. The machine must then 
lift up the end of the sliver out of the pins, pull up the slack sliver, and 
lay the end over the pins of the small circle. This work is performed 
by the conductors D. 

The conductors are a series of seventy-two brass troughs (shown 
in Fig, 104) fastened to the rack plate M (shown in Fig. 103). The 
slivers of wool pass from the balls on the racks F, each sliver passing 
through one of the conductors. The covers of the conductors are 



178 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



161 



hinged at the outside end so that they nip the wool at the end near the 
circle. This allows the sliver to be pulled forward through the circle 
very easily, but prevents it from shpping back. The conductor is 
also hinged so that the inner end 
can rise and falL For the greater 
part of a complete revolution 
they are at the lowest point rest- 
ing on the rack, but at a point a 
few inches past the drawing off 
rolls there is a stationary incline 




Fig. 105. Conductor and Press Knife. 



T, up which the conductors must rise as they travel around, while 
the slivers are firmly held down in the pins of the circles by the press 
knife P (see Fig. 105). The height or depth to which the knife is set 
regulates the amount of sliver drawn forward, because the conductors 
are always raised to the same height at every revolution. 

Before the conductors are raised on the incline the sliver lies in 
the conductor and circles in practically a straight line, as is shown by 
the dotted lines in Fig. 104, but when the conductors are at the top 
of the incline the position is changed as is shown by the dotted lines 
in Fig. 105, so there is approximately one inch more sliver between 
the nip of the conductor covers and the pins than will reach across 
the pins of the large circle B. 

The knives K now lift the sliver out of the pins as shown in 
Fig. 106, and as the conductor covers prevent the slivers from slipping 

back, the sliver falls for- 
ward over the steel plate 
which covers the pins of 
the large circle at this 
point, and whose extrem- 
ity reaches beyond the 
pins of the small circle, 
which approaches the large circle at this point as shown at S. The 
wool is now ready to be dabbed into the pins by the dabbing brush. 
As previously stated the arrangement of short and long fibers 
in the carded sliver does not appear to be uniform when the sliver is 
pulled apart, the short end having the short fibers nearer to its extrem- 
ity than is the case with the long end. This peculiarity is due to the 
action of the doffer, and must be considered if the best results are to 




Fig. 106. Conductor with Sliver Raised Out of Pins. 



179 



162 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



be obtained in combing. To get the greatest quantity of top with the 
smallest quantity of noil, from any carding, the short end must be 
fed up first to the comb, so that when it reaches the position shown 
in Fig. 106 the largest quantity of short wool will be dabbed into the 
small circle, without having any fibers overhanging its inner row of 
pins. If the long end were fed up first the larger quantity of wool 




Fig. 107. Showing Conductors and Method of Driving the Carriage. 

would be at least one-half inch from the end of the sliver, or in other 
words, when the short wool is in the pins of the small circle S, there 
would be a heavy fringe of longer fibers within its inner row of pins 
and all the longer wool would be taken off with the noil and conse- 
quently wasted. 

Drawing Off Rolls. It was explained under the heading Pre- 
paring that fluted drawing off rolls always cut the wool unless an 
apron of some kind is run between them to act as a sort of cushion 
against which the wool is nipped. If leather aprons, which are com- 
monly used, were durable, there would be no serious consequence to 



180 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



163 



their use, but unfortuntaely they soon wear out. This is due to two 
reasons: f^rst, to the severe bending strain to which they are subjected 
every time they pass through the drawing off rolls; and second, to the 
wear caused by the action of drawing the fibers through the pins of 
the circle. The combined effect of drawing the long fibers from the 
circles and bending on the drawing off rolls always wears an apron 
in the middle where the greatest strain is borne. To obviate this 



J fer^fe^T ^ '^^/L 




Fig. 108. Drawing-ofi Rolls. 

effect traverse motions are used, which increase the wearing surface 
of the apron. This motion is driven from a shaft above the bed- 
plate and carries cams which raise and lower the aprons as the shaft 
revolves. The illustration shown in Fig. 108 shows a pair of drawing 
off rolls. The lever A is acted upon by a spring at X, and presses 
against the dog in the middle of lever B. This device equalizes the 
pressure on both ends of the loose roll. 

Steam Chest. The steam chest in the old fashioned combs was 
not only the means of heating the rack, but also the only means of 
steadying it, and when either the rack or the steam chest was worn 
the rack had to be packed with brass wedges to keep it true. This, 
of course, wasted a great deal of power. It will be understood that 



181 



164 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

not only the rack itself, which is very heavy, has to be driven around 
by the gearing, but when the balls on the rolls F (shown in Fig. 103) 
are full, there may be three hundred pounds in addition to the weight 
of the creel and its fixings, so if the rack touched the steam chest, 
through the supporting wheels being worn, or through the accumula- 
tion of oil or any other cause, the friction would be so great as to 
sometimes break the driving rolls. 

The essential points in a good rack motion are that it should 
be true at the point of contact; that it may be easily driven, regardless 
of the amount of weight it has to carry; and that it can be effectively 
heated at the right place without communicating heat to any point 
where it is not needed. The invention of ball bearings made possible 
the attainment of all these desirable features. 

A semicircular groove is cut in a special carrying plate and filled 
with hard steel balls, as shown in Fig. 99, while another semicircular 
groove cut in the rack plate covers the upper half of the balls. The 
grooves and balls are cut so accurately that all lateral movement is 
prevented and at the same time makes the circle or rack easy to drive. 
The true running of the rack makes it possible to place it very near 
to the steam chest without any possibility of undue friction. Thus 
the maximum amount of heat is transmitted to the pins with very 
little loss. 

The exact reason why wool draws better when the pins are 
heated has never been established, but it is undoubtedly due to the 
action of the heat on some of the component parts of the wool fiber. 

Circles. As the circles are such an important part of combing 
on the Noble principle, Table 13 has been prepared to show the 
particulars of the circles for combing crossbred wool. The figures, 
such as 16 X 25, 17 X 25, and 18 X 25, in Column 3 of the partic- 
ulars of the large circle, indicate the gauge size in each direction at 
the base (which is rectangular shape) of the first three rows of pins. 
Three rows of flat pins are used in both the large and small circles, 
as shown in the table. 

The figures in Column 4 under both the large and small circle 
headings indicate, in decimals of an inch, the total space in every 
inch which is not occupied by pins, and if the figure given is divided 
by the number of pins per inch, the answer will be the space between 
every two pins. In properly arranged circles the space between the 



183 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



165 



pins steadily increases from the inside to the outside row in the large 
circlcj and vice versa, or from the outside to the inside on the small 
circles, because the outside of the small circles and the inside of the 
large circle do the most combing. 

There is always quite a large drop in the space between the 
pins, between the last row of flat pins and the first row of round pins, 
as may be seen in the table. This is due to the fact that the round 
pins are thicker and if they were not placed farther apart there would 
be a greater drag on the fibers. 

TABLE 13 



Large Circle 


Small Circles 


No. of 


Pins 


Size of 


Open 


No. of 


Pins 


Size of 


Open 


Row 


per inch 


Pins 


Space 


Row 


per inch 


Pins 


Space 








Inches 








Inches 


1 


33 


16X25 


.340 


1 


37 


16X26 


.334 


2 


32 


17X25 


.360 


2 


36 


18X26 


.352 


3 


28 


18X24 


.356 


. 3 


32 


18X25 


.360 


4 


24 


22 


.328 


4 


24 


22 


.328 


5 


20 


■ 21 


.360 


5 


18 


20 


.370 


6 


18 


20 


.370 


6 


14 


18 


.384 


7 


18 


20 


.370 










8 


14 


18 


.384 










9 


12 


17 


.376 










10 


12 


17 


.376 











Circle Cleaning. When knots and similar particles of vegetable 
matter are present in the wool, they are apt to get fixed between the 
fine pins in the front rows of the circle, thus forcing the pins apart, 
and making a space through which knots and shives can pass to the 
combed sliver. Circles having forty-two or forty-six pins to the inch 
have to be made with pins so fine that they are easily bent, which of 
course destroys the quality for which they are made. If these fine 
pins are continuously cleaned, however, they produce much better 
work than coarser and stronger pins set farther apart. Therefore it 
is a good plan to employ a suitable device to remove the knots and 
burrs, which, if present, reduce the efficiency of the circles. 

The best way to keep the circles clean is to have a brush set so 
that it will effectively push the knots and shives to the top of the pins, 
thus preventing them from becoming embedded at the base. A 
circular brush, shown at B in Fig. 101, with bristles parallel to its 



183 



166 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



axis, is so fixed that the upper bristles press against the pins of the 
circle at such an angle that the movement of the circle causes the brush 
to revolve. By this contact of the bristles and pins, the front row of 
pins is so effectually brushed that no particles of foreign matter can 
remain between the pins. This device is the simplei^t, and perhaps 
the most efficient, that has ever been devised for this purpose. 

Framework. The peculiar manner in which the creel of the 
Noble comb revolves around the working parts of the machine makes 





Fig. 109. 



Fig. 110. 



it necessary to put the driving pulleys at the top of the machine, if 
for no other reason, so that the operative will not be prevented, by 
pulleys or belts, from reaching any part of the machine at any time 
in its revolution. The strain of the driving shaft, being so high 
above the center of gravity of the machine, gives a great tendency 
toward vibration of the whole machine. The heavy construction of 
the legs and supports and the presence of a good foundation re- 
duces the vibration to a minimum. 

Can C oiler. The sliver from the drawing off rolls is passed to 
the can coiler device shown at Fig. 98. The object of putting the 
wool into a can instead of winding it into a ball is to have it in the 
condition from which it can most easily be drawn without any possi- 
bility of the fibers of one part of the sliver adhering to the fibers of 
some other Dart. 

J. 

In all balls of wool there are some parts of the sliver where the 
fibers lie exactly parallel, which causes the serrations of one fiber to 
adhere to serrations of other fibers in other parts of the sliver. The 
use of a can obviates this to some extent, but if a sliver is passed into 



184 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



167 



a can which does not have a circular motion, the sliver tends to lie 
across the can, backwards and forwards, in layers so nearly parallel 
that they would not easily separate again. The can coiler is designed 
to overcome this condition. It is usually driven from under the comb 
by a shaft and bevel gears, so that the coiler will stop at exactly the 
same time that the comb is stopped, the sliver being so tender that 
it would be instantly drawn apart if the feed rolls of the coiler ran 
a fraction of a second after the comb stopped. It is just as important 
that the coiler and comb should start 
together and run at exactly the same 
speed, so, of course, a positive motion 
of driving the can and coiler is best. 

The sliver is coiled by three distinct 
motions: first, there is a rotary funnel 
which rolls the sliver into a rope form, 
giving it a sort of false twist; second, 
there is a revolving disc which receives 
the sliver at its center (E, Fig. 109), and 
as it revolves passes the sliver into the 
the can on the line A; and third, the line 
A is eccentric with the circumference of 
the can F; as the can also is revolving, 
the sliver is delivered into it in such a 
way that it lies in regular coils, similar to 
those shown in the illustration. Fig. 110. As will be seen by the 
illustration the coils of sliver do not lie in parallel positions, so it is 
impossible for fibers of different parts of the sliver to become entangled. 
The softest slivers can be drawn from cans filled in this manner without 
danger of breaking or injuring them in any way. 

Gearing. The gearing of the Noble comb has been greatly 
simplified in the latest improved machines. The old style of double 
stud has been dispensed with and simple trains of gears, shown in 
Fig. Ill, have taken their places. The two intermediate gears, 60 
and 65, are connected by links with the gears on the drawing off 
roll shafts, and by this arrangement always remain correctly in gear, 
irrespective of how much the rolls may be moved to or from 
the circles. The speeds of the rolls vary to a large extent according 
to their size and the quality of the wool being combed. In Fig. Ill, 




Fiff. 111. 



185 



168 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



N represents tlie drawing off rolls; S, one of the small circies; and B, 
the large circle. 

Calculations. The total draft of the Noble comb can not be 
calculated accurately, and in fact, it is of little importance to know 
the draft, as the object of the machine is to thoroughly comb the noil 
from the long fibers and to give a large production. With the two 
press knives (one on each side of the machine) shown at P in Fig. 105, 
set to draw one inch, this distance might be considered as the feed 
and the output of the drawing off rollers considered the delivery, but 
this would not be of any value. 

Assuming that the driving shaft is running at a speed of 594 
revolutions per minute the following particulars may be worked out. 

To find the revolutions per minute of the large circle (which of 
course is the same as the speed of the rack and creel) : Multiply the 
speed of the main shaft (594), by the driving gears between the main 
shaft and the circle, and divide the product by the driven gears, 
multiplied by the number of teeth in the rack of the large circle (264). 

The driving gears have 16, 20 and 10 teeth respectively, and the 
driven gears have 32 and 66 teeth respectively. Therefore the calcu- 
lation will be as follows : 

594 X 16 X 20 X 10 
32 X 66 X 264 
which equals approximately 3^ revolutions per minute. 

To find the traverse of the large circle, the above calculation would 
be multiplied by the circumference (42| X 3y). 

594 X 16 X 20 X 10 X (42| X 3|) 
32 X 66 X 264 
Which gives approximately 459 inches that the large circle traverses 
per minute. 

To find the traverse of each of the small circles : Multiply the speed 
of the driving shaft (594) by the driving gears connecting the small 
circles and by the circumference of the small circle, and divide by 
the driven gears multiplied by the number of teeth in the rack of the 
small circle (94). 

594 X 16 X 20 X 13 X 12 X (16 X 3| ) 
32 X 66 X 16 X 94 
Which gives approximately 469 inches that each small circle traverses 
per minute. 



186 




DOUBLE CAN GILL BOX WITH COILER 

Piatt Bros. & Co. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 169 

To find the speed of the dabbing brushes: Multiply the speed of 
the main shaft (594) by diameter of the pulley on its ends (15), and 
divide by the diameter of the pulley on the dabbing motion (9). 

594 X 15 
9 
Which gives 990 strokes of the brush per minute. 

To find the output of the drawing off rolls (N in Fig. Ill and R in 
Fig. 103) : Multiply the speed of the main driving shaft (594) by the 
speed of the driving gears and the circumference of the drawing off 
rolls (Ij X 3y), and divide by the driven gears. 

594 X 16 X 40 X (Ij X 3|) 
32 X 50 
Which gives the drawing off rolls an output of 933 inches per minute. 

A comparison of the traverse of the large and small circles shows 
that the small circles travel 10 inches per minute faster than the large 
circle. This lead puts a slight strain on the fibers, and a^ the circles 
separate, the fibers which cling to the large circle must be drawn 
diagonally through the pins of the small circle. If the large circle 
had a slight lead there would be less strain on the fibers because they 
would be drawn radially through the pins of both circles. 

By comparing the number of strokes of the dabbing brush with 
the traverse of the circles, it will be noted that the circles travel 
approximately 4-inch for each stroke of the brush. 

FINISHING QILLINQ 

The sliver from the comb is run through two gill boxes before 
being wound into balls and taken to the drawing room. Wool is 
gilled after combing for a number of reasons, as follows : 

(a) To thoroughly blend the different lengths of fibers. 

(6) To continue the process of parallelizing the fibers. 

(c) To apply a quantity of water so that the proportion of 
moisture in the wool will be uniform, and at the standard; and to 
make every yard of sliver weigh exactly the same. 

(d) To wind the sliver into balls so that it will occupy the least 
possible space, and from which the sliver may be unwound very 
easily when it reaches the drawing frames. 



187 



170 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



Taking up the reason given at a, it is necessary, if a sliver is to 
be as perfect as possible, that the various lengths of fibers should be 
Intermixed as much as possible throughout every portion of the 




sliver. As no combing machine distributes the long and short 
fibers equally throughout the sliver, two fine gill boxes are always 
used to obtain this result. - 

The arrangement of the drawing off rolls on the Lister or nip 
comb produces a sliver in which all the long fibers are on one side and 



188 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 171 

the short fibers are on the other. The sHver from the Noble comb 
is better blended, but it is composed of four smaller slivers drawn 
from the four sets of drawing off rolls. The wool from the drawing 
off rolls on the small circles is shorter than that from the large circles, 
so, of course, the gilling operation is necessary to equalize the length 
of fibers in all parts of the sliver. 

The first of the two gill boxes in the finishing process is a can 
gill box, that is, it delivers the wool into a can. The fallers are three 
per inch for the finest grades of wool, or two per inch for crossbred 
wool, and are carried in double-thread screws. For both kinds of 
wool the fallers have pins for ten inches of their width, and there are 
two rows of pins in each faller with sixteen and fifteen pins per inch 
respectively. 

It is unnecessary to go into the details of the finishing gill boxes 
as they are similar in every way to those previously explained, having 
front and back rolls, and fallers. Twenty-eight cans of sliver from 
the comb are placed at the back of the first finishing gill box and the 
slivers are fed to the back rolls. If ten yards of each sliver weigh one 
and one-fourth ounces, and there is a draft of five on the box, the 
resulting sliver delivered by the front rolls is quite heavy, weighing 
about seven ounces to each ten yards. This is desirable, however^ as 
the sliver will come from the can more easily and will be less likely 
to fray at the edges. Furthermore, only three of these slivers can be 
fed to each side of the last box, and there is less possibility of ends 
breaking down. A skillful operative may be able to piece up the 
broken ends without making a lump or any visible unevenness in the 
top, but a great many of the faults which are found in tops are caused 
on the finishing boxes. Every lump or uneven place in the top is 
serious as it can not be remedied in any subsequent process. 

To return to the last finishing box, the three slivers, each weighing 
approximately seven ounces to ten yardss placed at the back of the 
last box, are drafted five to one which gives a finished sliver weighing 
four and one-fifth ounces to ten yards. These weights are suitable 
for the finest wools, but in working crossbred the slivers would be 
somewhat heavier. The same number of ends would be fed at the 
back of the boxes, but the sliver from the comb would be heavier. 

To get the weight of the yarn uniform the drawing room "must 
receive the tops of uniform weight. For this reason there is a standard 



189 



172 WOOLiEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

of weight set for various grades of wool, the weight increasing as the 
quality of the wool decreases. The standard weights in some locali- 
ties are as follows: 

Botany Wool 4 to 5 ozs. for 10 yards of sliver. 

Crossbred Wool 6 to 7 ozs. for 10 yards of sliver. 

Long Wool 8 to 9 ozs. for 10 yards of sliver. 

The weight of the sliver is, of course, affected by the quantity 
of oil and water it holds by mechanical means, therefore it is necessary 
that the quantities of oil and water be accurately ascertained. 

The supply of oil is regulated as shown at Fig. 94, and it is 
unfortunate that water cannot be regulated and applied by the same 
method. Water evaporates very rapidly when passing through the 
heated combs, and also in every other process where the wool is 
exposed as an open sliver to the warm, dry atmosphere of the combing 
room. To make up for this loss, water is applied on the last gill box 
immediately before the sliver is wound into bi lis. 

The sliver, as it passes from the front rolls, runs over a brass 
roll which revolves very slowly in a trough of water. The water is 
always maintained at the same level and the amount applied to the 
wool is regulated by changing the speed of the brass roll. If the roll 
revolves at a high speed it would carry a large amount of water on its 
surface and the broad dry sliver might absorb as much as 30% of 
its own weight. If the brass roll revolves slowly, the water runs down 
the surface of the roll before it reaches the point where the sliver 
touches it. The speed of the roll should be regulated to add enough 
water to the sliver to put it in what is termed the standard condition', 
i. e., the ball should contain 81f % of pure wool, 2|^ % of oil, and 16% 
of water. The water is always uniform. In cases where the wool 
is combed without oil there should be 84 % of wool. 

Balling Head. The balling head is perhaps the chief feature 
of the finishing gilling, for it is very essential that the balls or tops be 
properly built to prevent the edges from fraying and looping some of 
the fibers, which will cause slubs or thick places in the drawing process 
and in the yarn. 

A diagrammatic view of the balling machine is shown at Fig. 113. 
The sliver passes from the front fluted rolls R to the rolls AA, all of 
which have the same surface speed. The core or spindle M, on which 
the wool is wound, rests on the rolls AA when it is empty, and rises 



180 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



173 



vertically and parallel as the wool is wound on it. When the machine 
is running the sliver winds upon M, and as the number of layers 
increases the spindle M rises until the required size of ball has been 
made., when it is taken off the rolls AA, pulled out of the ball of wool, 
and used to form another ball. 

To build a ball by machinery two motions are necessary : jirsty 
a rotary motion to wind the sliver around the core or spindle M; and 
second, a transverse motion to move the sliver from one side of the 
ball to the other. To make this possible the relative positions of the 
place where the sliver is delivered from the front rolls R, and the 




Fig. 113. Ealling Head 

place where it is wound on the ball^ must be changed. The rolls R 
can not be made movable in a horizontal direction, and if a traversing 
conductor were put in the space between the rolls R and AA, the 
tension on the end of the traverse would be greater than at the middle. 
Therefore, the rolls AA, in addition to revolving, are made to travel 
about six inches across the end of the funnel or conductor E, which 
guides the sliver to the ball. 

Each of the two horizontal shafts which carry the rolls AA has a 
groove running its entire length. The rolls are arranged so that they 
can freely slide on the shafts when moved by the frame F. Traverse 
motion is imparted to the frame F by the bevel gears and crank 
pin P. The rolls are fitted with keys which slide in the grooves or 
keyways of the shafts, which of course causes the rolls AA to revolve 
at the same speed as the shaft. The result of this device is the same 
as if the funnel E was traveling and the rolls had no traverse motion. 

The relative surface speed of the rolls AA and the number of 



191 




174 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

traverses they make per minute is very important. If the traverse 
motion should make one reciprocation while- the front rolls were 
delivering enough sliver to make one wrap around the ball, there 
will be many wraps side by side, resulting in a very unshapely ball, 
which will easily fall apart when handled. 

The first wrap around the core M is 
seven inches long, while the outside 
wraps, when the ball is full, are thirty- 
seven inches in length. If a suitable 
traverse were fixed for the seven inch 
wrap it would be much too fast for the 
thirty-seven inch wi'ap. The traverse is 
generally made to suit the average wrap 

of about twenty-two inches. This gives 
Fig. 114. Plan Of Measuring. ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^.^ traverse at 

the core of thej3all and three-fourths of a wrap for each traverse on 
the outside of the ball. The result of this setting is that there is 
always one part of the ball where the slivers never cross one another, 
every wrap lying parallel with the one preceding it. This, of course, 
causes some difficulty when unwinding the ball as the fibers of parallel 
wraps have a tendency to cling together making ragged edges. 

A more perfect ball may be built with a traverse motion, which 
varies as the ball increases in size. Good results may be obtained 
in this line by a friction roll working on a table, but the necessity of 
setting such a motion every time a ball is doffed makes it rather 
impracticable. 

Measuring. It is essential that the balls or tops off the last 
finishing gill box should be imijoi'm in weight, and consequently 
in length of sliver. To get this result it is necessary to use a measuring 
device which will stop the machine when the proper length of sliver 
has been wound into the ball. The motion used for' this purpose is 
termed a hiocJcei'-off ; the type shown in Figs. 114 and 115 being in 
general use. 

A five pound ball made up of sliver which weighs four ounces 
to ten yards will contain two hundred yards [(5 X 16 X 10) -r- 4 = 200] 
and the gears of the measuring motion must be arranged to give this 
length before stopping the machine. 

Referring to Figs. 114 and 115, which show a plan and elevation 



19^ 




WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 175 

of the measuring knocker-o£f device, the parts are as follows: B is a 
gear having a number of teeth that is a prime number, such as 71, 61, 
59, and 43, all of which are in practical use. A is a gear of 41 teeth 
which meshes with B. Both these gears have one tooth projecting 
beyond the others which stop the machine when they come together. 
If these two projecting teeth start from the point between the centers 
of the two gears at the same time, each gear must move a number of 
teeth equal to the least common multiple of the teeth of the two gears 
before the projections can meet again. The least common multiple 
of 43 and 41 is 1763, and in that number of teeth the gear B will have 
revolved 41 times, or the number of teeth in the gear A. 

The output of the rollR, before the projections meet, will be the 
circumference of the roller R multiplied by the number of teeth in the 
gear C, which meshes with the worm 
W, and multiplied by the number of 
teeth in the gear A. 

8X22X41= 7216 inches 

Therefore there would be two 
hundred yards, sixteen inches de- ^fl 

livered by the front roll before the ^T°"^ 

knocker-off device stopped the ma- I 

clime. Fig. 115. Elevation of Measuring 

The actual operation of stopping Device. 

the machine is as follows: When the projections on gears A and B 
come together they force the gear A and its stud plate D away from 
B- This releases the shipper rod from the slot in which it is held, 
and a spring pushes the shipper rod backward and thus moves the 
belt on to the loose pulley. 

Top Testing. In some countries top making, i. e., the manu- 
facture of balls of wool which have been worked up to the drawing 
operation, is a separate industry, and to adjust the difficulties which 
often arise between the top maker and the manufacturers who buy 
wool in this form, on account of the amount of oil, water, and 
quality of stock, conditioning houses have been established. As 
the top making industry in this country is assuming large propor- 
tions, it is probable that this subject may require considerable atten- 
tion in the immediate future. 



19Q 



176 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

When wool is combed to be sold in the form of tops, it is common 
practice to add an excess of either water or oil, or both, to increase the 
weight and thus make additional profit. Water costs practically 
nothing, but for every pound used the purchaser pays the same price 
as for the wool. Olive oil also is used and nets the top makers a 
handsome profit, as the cheap grade of oil used costs but a few cents 
per pound, while the purchaser pays the full price of the wool for it, 
which may be as high as 90 cents per pound. 

It will be easily understood that the purchaser desires only 
sufficient oil to make the top work well and would be glad to buy 
wool vv^hich is entirely free from water. The standard adopted by 
the conditioning houses is six drams of oil to one pound of wool, but 
in some instances the parties agree upon a different basis to suit their 
special needs. If the amount agreed upon is exceeded, as proved by 
, tests at the conditioning houses, the purchaser receives the equivalent 
in money for the excess of water and oil contained in the wool. 

To find a standard for moisture is a very diflBcult proposition. 
Wool has a natural affinity for water, especially after being combed on 
machines which are heated by steam. In a short time after being 
finished they will contain from eight to twelve per cent of moisture, 
even when no water has been previously applied. Tops combed 
without the addition of moisture will rapidly gain in weight if placed 
in a cool moist room. This regain in weight is about the same in all 
qualities of tops, and averages about nineteen per cent. As is stated 
above, this natural regain is often increased by artificial means. 
The natural regain of nineteen per cent is desirable, as it improves 
the spinning quality of the v/ool, and therefore, has been adopted 
as a standard. 

The above remarks apply to tops combed in oil, and the amount 
of moisture absorbed will depend upon the amount of oil in the tops. 
When a quantity consisting of 500 pounds of tops is tested on a basis 
of nineteen per cent regain, which is an exact equivalent of the sixteen 
per cent or standard losses, it will be found to contain only 420 pounds 
of wool, the remaining 80 pounds having evaporated as moisture. 
For instance, when 500 pounds of tops in standard condition are 
tested they will weigh only 420 pounds, which is a loss of sixteen per 
cent. The regain is figured on the dry vv^eight of wool (420 pounds) 



194 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



177 



and the nineteen per cent of the 420, when added to the dry weight, 
will bring the weight back to the original amount (500 pounds). 

Testing for Water. When testing for water a sample of about 
one-half pound is taken from each bag, accurately weighed, and then 
wound on a wire reel, shown at D in Fig. 1 16. This reel represents 
one end of a scale, shown at E, and is suspended with the wool in the 
oven F, which is kept at a temperature of about 212° F. The water 
contained in the wool is evaporated in 20 to .30 minutes. The scale 




Fig. 116. Apparatus for Testing Moisture. 

is then balanced, and if the samples of wool are in standard condition, 
the beam will balance with 2935 grains in the scale pan, K, as the 
wool will have lost 560 grains, or sixty per cent of the 3494 grains 
contained in haK a pound. If half a pound of 3494 grains contains 
560 grains of moisture, one pound will contain 1120 grains. This 
calculation is approximately correct, but of course different samples 
of wool will vary from the above figures. 



195 



178 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

WORSTED DRAWING 

When the sUvers of wool leave the last finishing gill box in the 
form of tops or balls, they are ready for the drawing process, which 
continues the operation of parallelizing the fibers and reduces the 
slivers to the small roving put up at the back of the spinning frame. 
This change is not accompHshed on one machine, but is the result of 
what is termed a Set of Drawing. 

There are three principal methods of drawing; ^. e., Open Draw- 
ing, Cone Drawing, and French Drawing. 

The principle of drawing is very simple. It is merely to reduce 
a thick sliver, or a number of slivers, of wool down to a sliver or roving 
so small that it can be spun into a thread without an excessive draft, 
and at the same time to even it so that the resulting spun thread will 
be of uniform thickness. This is done, and can only be done, by a 
pair of back rolls revolving slowly, and drawing the wool in, and feed- 
ing a pair of front rolls which revolve quickly and draw the wool out. 
This operation is repeated a sufficient number of times, with a suitable 
number of doublings to produce a roving of the correct weight and 
condition. All kinds of drawing do this, but there are differences in 
their methods which make them especially adapted to produce certain 
results. 

OPEN DRAWING 

A set of open drawing frames is composed of a number of ma- 
chines varying from six to nine; and in extreme cases ten machines 
are used. The number of machines is governed by the length and 
quality of the wool and the weight of roving required to give the 
desired counts or size of yarn. For heavy roving suitable for yarn up 
to ^Os counts, six operations are sufficient, while for medium wools 
suitable for 40s counts, seven and eight operations are required. For 
still finer wools which are to be spun to 50s or 60s counts and which, 
of course, require very light roving, nine operations are required. 

As this is the first mention of counts of yarn the meaning will be 
explained. The sizes of yarns are designated by such terms as cut, 
run, counts, hanks, etc., all of which are based upon the two elementary 
principles of weight and length. Each term represents a certain 
length of yarn for a fixed weight, and vice versa. 

In woolen manufacturing the terms cut and run are used, haying 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 179 

300 and 1600 respectively for their standard numbers. For instance, 
a one cut woolen yarn would have a hank of 300 yards to one pound ; 
a three cut yarn would have 3X300, or 900 yards to one pound. A 
one run woolen yarn would have a hank of 1600 yards to one pound, 
or three times 1600 or 4800 yards in a three run yarn. 

Worsted yarns are designated by the term counts and have 560 
as a standard number. A one counts (written Is) worsted yarn has 
a hank of 560 yards to one pound; a 10s worsted yarn would have 
10X560 or 5600 yards to the pound; a 20s worsted would have 11,200 
yards to the pound ; and so on. 

This makes it plain that when a certain counts of yarn is spoken 
of, it refers to a yarn of which the product- of the number of counts 
multiplied by the standard number represents the number of yards 
which will weigh one pound. The number of yards contained in a 
pound increases in direct proportion as the counts increases. 

The above explains why a 40s yarn recjuires finer roving, and 
consequently more machines in the drawing set than a 20s or any 
other coarser number. 

The following table gives the machines required in a fine set of 
drawing machines, or in other words, a set of drav/ing machines for 
fine yarns. 

1st operation — 2 double head can gill boxes 
2nd operation — 2 double head can gill boxes 
3rd operation — 2 two spindle gill boxes 
4th operation — 2 four spindle drawing boxes 
5th operation — 2 six spindle weigh boxes 
6th operation — 2 eight spindle drawing boxes 
7th operation — 2 twenty-four spindle finishers 
8th operation — 3 thirty spindle reducers 
9th operation — 9 thirty spindle rovers 

Operation. The following doublings and drafts would be requir- 
ed to make a two dram roving on the above set from a top weighing 
280 drams for 40 yards. 

Five slivers, each weighing 280 drams for 40 yards, would be put 
up at the back of the gill boxes in the first operation. With the usual 
draft of six, the single sliver drawn from these. five slivers would weigh 
2331- drams for 40 yards as it came from the front of the gill box. 
Five of these slivers, each weighing 233^ drams for 40 yards, would 
be put up at the back of each of the second gill boxes, and with the 



197 



180 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

usual draft of six the single sliver from the front would weigh 194^ 
drams for 40 yards. 

For the third operation five slivers each weighing 194| drams 
for 40 yards would be put up at the back of the third gill boxes and 
given a draft of six, which would give a single sliver weighing 162 
drams for 40 yards. Reference to the table shows that the third 
operation is on spindle gill boxes, so the sliver is wound on large 
spools at this point. 

Four of these spools would be put up at the back of the four 
spindle drawing box for the fourth operation, and with a draft of 
six, the resulting sliver would weigh 108 drams for 40 yards. 

Four of these slivers would then be put up at the six spindle 
weigh box, and with a draft of six, the sliver would weigh 72 drams 
for 40 yards at the end of the fifth operation. 

For the sixth operation only three slivers are put up behind the 
eight spindle drawing box, and with a draft of six, the sliver would be 
reduced to 36 drams for 40 yards. 

The seventh operation takes place on what is known as the 
twenty-four spindle finisher; three slivers being put up and given a 
draft of six, which reduces the weight to 18 drams for 40 yards. 

Two of these slivers are then put up behind the thirty spindle 
reducer, and given a draft of six, wliich gives a weight of six drams to 
40 yards at the end of the eighth operation. 

The ninth and last operation consists of putting up two six dram 
slivers at the back of the thirty spindle rover and giving a draft of six, 
which produces a roving weighing two drams for 40 yards; the 
desired weight. 

The above set has been worked out with equal drafts, and serves 
to illustrate the method of reducing the large slivers from the finishing 
gilling to the roving required for the spinning frames. It must not 
be supposed, however, that the drafts used in the foregoing example 
are standard, for the drafts used in every operation are subject to 
change according to the grade and condition of the wool and the 
judgment of the overseer. 

Before proceeding further, the reason why a set of drawing con- 
tains two machines of one kind, as in the first operation, where two 
double head gill boxes are used, and nine machines of one kind, as in 
the last operation, where nine thirty spindle roving machines are used. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 181 

It will readily be understood that the production of the machines in 
the first operation must be large enough to supply the machines in 
the second operation, so there will be no lost efficiency. It is this 
principle that determines the number of machines in each operation. 

Another point to which particular attention should be called is 
the number of deliveries of each machine. For instance, both the 
first and second operations consist of two double head can gill boxes. 
As each double box is equal to two single boxes there are four slivers 
delivered in each of these operations. 

Each of the two spindle gill boxes in the third operation delivers 
two slivers (one for each spindle), so there are four slivers delivered 
in the third operation. The fourth operation consists of two four 
spindle drawing boxes, so of course there are eight sHvers delivered 
from the fourth operation. 

Thus the number of slivers delivered gradually increases as the 
slivers are drawn out finer, until at the last operation there are nine 
machines, each of which delivers thirty rovings. 

Medium Wools. It will have been inferred from previous state- 
ments that medium and coarse wools do not require as many draw- 
ing operations as fine wools. The following table gives the machines 
required in a set of drawing for medium wool. 

1st operation — 2 double head can gill boxes 
2nd operation — 2 two spindle gill boxes 
3rd operation — 1 four spindle drawing box 
4th operation — 1 six spindle weigh box 
5th operation — 1 eight spindle drawing box 
6th operation — 2 twenty-four spindle finishers 
7th operation — 3 thirty spindle reducers 
8th operation — 9 thirty spindle rovers 

To make a four dram roving from a top weighing 1282 drams for 
40 yards on the above set, the following doublings and drafts would 
be required. 

For the first operation, five of these slivers, each weighing 1282 
drams, would be put up at the back of the gill boxes. With a draft of 
seven, the resulting sliver would weigh 916 drams. 

For the second operation, five of the slivers from the gill boxes 
would be put up at the back of the two spindle gill boxes. With a 
draft of seven, the resulting sliver would weigh 654 drams. 

Five of these slivers would be put up at the back of the four 



199 



182 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

spindle drawing box for the third operation, and with a draft of seven, 
the sliver from the front rolls would weigh 467 drams. 

With four of these slivers put up at the back of the six spindle 
weigh box, and given a draft of seven, the sliver at the end of the fourth 
operation would weigh 267 drams. 

For the fifth operation, three of these slivers are put up at the 
back of the eight spindle drawing boxes. With a draft of seven, the 
resulting sliver will weigh 114 J drams. 

For the sixth operation, three slivers are put up at the back of 
the finisher and given a draft of seven, which reduces the weight to 
49 drams. 

Two of these slivers are put up at the back of the reducer for the 
seventh operation, and given a draft of seven, which reduces the weight 
to 14 drams. 

For the last operation, two of these slivers are put up at the back 
of the roving machine and given a draft of seven, which makes the 
desired four dram roving. 

A shorter method of finding the weight of roving when the weight 
of the sliver in the top and the number of doublings and drafts are 
known, is to multiply the weight of sliver by the number of doublings 
in each operation, and divide by the draft given in each operation. 
The weight of sliver from the top in the above example is 1282, and 
the doubUngs are as follows: First operation, 5; second operation, 5; 
third operation, 5; fourth operation, 4; fifth operation, 3; sixth 
operation, 3; seventh operation, 2; and eighth operation, 2. The 
draft for each of the eight operations is seven, so the problem is as 
follows : 

1282 X5X5X5X4X3X3X2X2 
7X7X7X7X7X7X7X7 
which gives approximately 4 drams. 

Coarse Wools. For long coarse wools the following set of ma- 
chines is commonly used. 

1st operation — 1 double head can gill box 
2iad operation — 1 two spindle gill box 
3rd operation — 1 four spindle drawing box 
4th operation — 1 six spindle weigh box 
5th operatien— 3 six spindle finishers 
6th operation^4 thirty spindle rovers 

If a ten dram roving were required from a top which weighed 



200 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 183 

736 drams for 40 yards, it could be obtained by the following means. 

For the first operation, six slivers from tops, each weighing 736 
drams for 40 yards, would be put up at the back of the double head 
can gill box and given a draft of nine. The resulting sliver would 
weigh 491 drams. 

Second operation: Six shvers each weighing 491 drams put up 
at the two spindle gill boxes and given a draft of nine. The resulting 
sliver weighs 327 drams. 

Third operation: Five slivers each weighing 327 drams put up 
at the four spindle drawing box and given a draft of nine. The 
resulting sliver weighs 182 drams. 

Fourth operation: Five slivers each weighing 182 drams put up 
at the six spindle weigh box and given a draft of nine. The resulting 
sliver weighs 101 drams. 

Fifth operation: Four slivers each weighing 101 drams put up 
at the six spindle finishers and given a draft of nine. The resulting 
sliver weighs 45 drams. 

Sixth operation: Two slivers each weighing 45 drams put up 
at the roving frame and given a draft of nine, which gives the required 
roving of approximately ten drams for forty yards. 

736 X6X6X 5X5X4X2 97 



9X9X9X9X9X9 MOO 

In the above calculations equal drafts have been used throughout 
the drawing processes. This is done primarily to simplify the process 
of working out a set of drawing from the top to the roving, and must 
not be taken as a rule to work by, for equal drafts are not always 
convenient, and often are not advisable. For instance, a larger 
draft can always be used on the gill boxes than would be practicable 
in drawing boxes, and furthermore, the drafts and doublings must be 
so arranged that the machines in one operation will keep the machines 
in the next operation suppHed with work. 

Method of working out a set of drawing from the weight of 40 yards 
of "Top": 

40 yards from tops weigh 280 Drams 

5 Ends up 1st gill box 
Draft 6 ) 1400 

233 § Drams from 1st gill box 



201 



184 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

Method of working out a set of drawing from the weight of 40 yards 

of "top": 2331 

5 Ends up 2nd gill box 
Draft 6) Tl67 

194 1^ Drams from 2nd gill box 
5 Ends up 2 spindle gill box 
•Draft 6 ) 972 + 

162 Drams from 2 spindle gill box 
4 Ends up 4 spindle drawing box 



Draft 6 ) 648 

108 Drams from 4 swindle drawing box 

4 Ends up 6 spindle weigh box 
Draft 6 )~432 

72 Drams from six spindle weigh box 

3 Ends up 8 spindle drawing box 
Draft 6 ) 216 

36 Drams from 8 spindle drawing box 

3 Ends up finisher 
Draft 6 ) - 108 

18 Drams from finisher 

2 Ends up reducer 
Draft 6 ) 36 

6 Drams from reducer 

2 Ends up roving 
Draft 6 ) ^12 

2 Dram roving 

If it is desired to find the weight of the sHver from the "top" to 

produce a certain weight of roving, the above calculations are reversed ; 

that is, begin with the weight of roving required, multiply by the drafts 

and divide by the doublings, as follows : 

Weight of roving required 2 Drams for 40 yards 

6 Draft on rover 
Roving ends up 2 ) 12 

6 Weight from reducer 

6 Draft of reducer 
Reducer ends up 2 ) 36 

18 AYeight from finisher 

6 Draft on finisher 
Finisher ends up 3 ) 10 8 

36 Drams from 8 spindle drawing 

6 Draft on 8 spindle drawing 

8 spindle drawing ends up 3 J 216 

72 Drams from 6 spindle weigh 

6 Draft on 6 spindle weigh 
6 spindle weigh ends up 4 ) 432 

108 Drams from 4 spindle drawing 



^01? 




z 
>-] 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 185 



108 

6 Draft on 4 spindle drawing 



I 



4 spindle di^awing ends up 4 ) 648 

162 Drams from 2 spindle gill 
6 Draft on 2 spindle gill 
2 spindle gill ends up 5 ) 972 

194 I Drams from 2nd gill 

6 Draft on 2nd gill 

2nd gill ends up 5) 1166 + 

233 i Drams from 1st gill 

6 Draft of 1st gill 

1st gill ends up 5 ) 1399 

280 Weight of 4^ yards from the top 

The drafts, doublings, and weights given in these examples are 
not recommended for any kind of stock, but are given as examples to 
illustrate the method of calculation in practical use. They will be 
found as nearly correct as it is possible to give in general instances. 

Can Gill Boxes. When commencing a set of drawing, a suitable 
number of ends or slivers are put up at each side or half of the first 
can gill box, as explained in previous examples. Fig. 117 shows a 
gill box of this type. The slivers pass through the back rolls, and are 
carried forward to the front rolls by the fallers, just as in other gilHng 
operations. The front rolls draw out the wool into a sliver which is 
thinner than any of the slivers at the back, according to the amount of 
draft that is given. For instance, if six ends or slivers, each weighing 
200 drams for 40 yards, were put up at the back (at each side), there 
would be 1200 drams of wool being fed to each side of the machine. 
With a draft of eight, the resulting sliver delivered by the front rolls 
would weigh 150 drams for 40 yards. 

1200 ^ 8 = 150 

In this manner throughout the set, it is a process of doubling 
and drafting, continually reducing the weight of the sliver until finally 
the required weight of roving is obtained. 

Measuring. The first can gill box is equipped with a stop motion 
to regulate the length of sliver put into the cans. The length of sliver 
is usually regulated so as to make the full cans weigh a given amount, 
say forty pounds. As the can weighs about twenty-two pounds, the 
weight of sliver in both sides of the can would be eighteen pounds. 
This weight however cannot be depended upon, owing to variations 
in the weight of the tops, and the wearing away and consequent change 
in thickness of the aprons. For this reason, when the cans are taken 



203 



186 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



to the second gill boxes (which are exactly like the first) a number of 
them, say six, are made up into a set so that their combined weight 
will equal*240 pounds. Such a set of six cans might weigh respec- 




Fig. 117. Double Head Can Gill Box. 

tively, 39|, 39^, 41, 39, 40, and 41 pounds, making the desired total, 
240 pounds. 

In some instances, a number of heavy cans accumulate, and the 
total weight for six cans exceeds 240 pounds. When this occurs, a 
larger draft gear is used on the machine to make a number of light 
cans to balance the heavy ones. 



ao4 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



187 



It is important to have the slivers uniform as early in the drawing 
process as possible, for it is evident that a number of slivers of exactly 
the same size and weight will work together better and give better 
results than the same number of slivers which vary in size and weight. 
This is especially true after the slivers receive twist at the two spindle 
gill boxes, and there also will be less variation in weight when the weigh 
box is reached. 

The two spindle gill boxes are similar to the can gill boxes, with 
the exception that in place of cans there are two spindles on which 
large bobbins or spools, with nine inch heads and a traverse of fourteen 



Back Shaft 



n5 

1 



Back RoU 



]= 



Front Roll 



3=1 



Fig. 118. Diagram of Draft Mechanism. 

inches, are placed. Two large flyers attached to the top of the spindle 
put twist into the slivers and at the same time wind them on the 
bobbins. 

Draft. Before taking up anything further, it will be necessary 
to study the draft of these gill boxes. By referring back to the explana- 
tion of Preparing, it will be noted that on the first preparing box the 
draft between the f allers and the back rolls is equal to the draft between 
the fallers and the front rolls, and that in each succeeding operation 
the draft between the back rolls and fallers decreases. In the gill 
boxes which constitute the first operations in drawing, there is only 
enough draft between the back rolls and fallers to keep the wool 
straight, consequently the actual draft is between the fallers and front 
rolls, or perhaps more correctly between the front rolls and back 



i305 



188 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



rolls; with the fallers acting as a series of combs to straighten the fibers. 

Regarding the parts affecting the draft, all drawing gill boxes 

are alike. The illustration shown in Fig. 118 is a diagram of the draft 




Fig. 119. Two-Spindle am Box. 



gearing. The back roll is three inches in diameter, and the front roll 
is two inches in diameter. The front roll gear 3 has sixty teeth, and 
the draft change gear 4, on the back shaft, has forty teeth. The gear 



206 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 189 



5, on the other end of the back shaft, drives the back rolls through the 

stud gears 6 and 7 and may be considered a draft change gear. In 

this instance it has twenty teeth. The inside stud gear 6, which 

meshes with 5, has seventy teeth. The outside stud gear 7 is also a 

change gear, and in this instance has seventeen teeth. The gear 8, 

on the back roll shaft, has seventy teeth and is driven by the stud gear 

7. 

With the above particulars the calculation for the draft would be 

as follows : Multiply the diameter of the front roll by the number of 

teeth in gears 4, 5, and 8 and divide the product by the diameter of 

the back roll multiplied by the number of teeth in gears 3, 5, and 7. 

2 X 40 X 70 X 70 4 ^ . 

= 6777 Draft 



3 X 60 X 20 X 17 10 

The back roll should be set away from the front roll far enough 
to prevent breakage of fibers, and in the case of long wools or any 
wools that are hard to draw, considerable more space maybe allowed. 

The stop motions on the drawing gill boxes are exactly like the 
one shown in Figs. 114 and 115, and will not be taken up further. 
As previously stated, their object is to have a uniform length of sliver 
in the cans and on the bobbins, so that they may be weighed and made 
into sets. 

The drawing machines or boxes follow the gill boxes. They all 
are constructed on the same principle, the only difference being that 
the flyers and bobbins are made smaller on each succeeding machine. 
This is necessary on account of the sliver becoming finer at each 
operation, for it is clear that the finer slivers could not drag around the 
large bobbins. 

Before taking up the mechanism by which the flyers and bobbins 
are operated, we will become familiar with the size of bobbins and the 
number of spindles for each machine in one of the latest sets of drawing 
machinery. 

Prince Smith and Sons' latest set of drawing machinery for fine 

loool. 

1st operation — 2 double head can gill boxes 

2nd operation — 2 two spindle gUl boxes, 9 x 14 bobbin 

3rd operation — 1 four spindle drawing box, 9 x 14 bobbin 

4th operation — 1 six spindle weigh box, 8 x 14 bobbin 

5th operation — 1 eight spindle drawing box, 7 x 14 bobbin 

6th operation — 2 eight spindle 1st finisher, 6 x 12 bobbin 



ao7 



190 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



7th operation — 2 twenty-four spindle 2nd finisher, 4^x9 bobbin 
8th operation — 3 thirty spindle reducers, 3|- x 6 bobbin 
9th operation — 9 thirty spindle rovers, 3x5 bobbin 

It will be noticed that the number of spindles increases and the 
size of the bobbins decreases with succeeding operations. This is 
necessary on account of the reduction in size and weight of the 
slivers, which necessitates more deliveries to produce the same 
amount delivered by the larger and heavier deliveries of preceding 
machines. 

The two spindle gill box, shown in Fig. 119, is the first machine 
in which twist is introduced into the sliver. The wool is delivered 
by the front rolls in the same manner as in can 
gill boxes, but instead of being delivered into a 
can it is wound on to a bobbin by means of the 
flyer C. 

Flyers. Fig, 120 shows a flyer and bobbin. 
The sliver passes from the front rolls through 
the top of the flyer, then through a ring B at 
the top of the wing C. It is then wound around 
one of the wings and passes through the ring D 
to the bobbin. 

The flyer fits on top of the spindle, as shown 
in Fig. 119, and the twist is regulated by the 
speed of the spindle, which is, of course, the 
speed of the flyer, relatively to the speed of the 
front rolls. The faster they deliver the sliver, 
the less twist can the flyers, at any given speed, 
put into it. The spindle is driven by a belt pass- 
ing around the pulley at the bottom of the spindle, 
from the pulley E, which is on a shaft at the back of the machine. 
The amount of twist needed for the thick sliver, or slubbing as it 
is sometimes called, is very small, a fraction of a turn per inch being 
enough. 

Unlike cone drawing, where the drag is purely mechanical and 
consequently always the same whether the bobbin is full or empty, 
the sliver itself has to drag the bobbin around. The bobbins are 
carried up and down the length of the traverse on the builder plate 
B, which is controlled by the mangle wheel A (Fig. 119). The 



308 




Fig. 130. 
Flyer and Bobbin. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



191 



mangle wheel operates the builder plate at the same speed all the 
time the bobbin is being filled. The spindles also are revolving at 
the same speed, therefore, it is evident that the empty barrel of the 
bobbin must take up as much length of slubbing or sliver as the full 
bobbin does. From this it will be seen that the bobbin must increase 




Fig. 131. 



Four-Spindle Drawing Box. 

in speed as it increases in diameter, in order to keep up with the flyer. 
On a cone drawing box the bobbin is carried around by the bob- 
bin gear, but in open drawing the bobbin is loose on the spindle, 
and the drag is regulated by cloth or leather washers placed between 
the builder plate and the bobbin. As the bobbin increases in size 
and weight, the drag becomes heavier, which is a serious fault. This 



?9P 



192 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



is where cone drawing proves its superiority, and which is bringing 
it into more universal use. 

The illustration, Fig. 121, shows a four spindle drawing box. 
The large bobbins doffed from the two spindle gill box are placed in 
a creel at the back of the machine, and the slivers are fed to the back 
rolls. There are no fallers in this machine, the operation consisting 
merely of the front rolls drawing out the slivers and passing them to 
the flyers and bobbins, as explained in connection with Fig. 119. 

The weigh box follows the four spindle drawing box, and in 
many respects requires more care than any other machine in the set, 
for it is here that the final evening is done. The 
sliver is drawn out between the front and back 
rolls, the same as in the previous operation, and 
is wound on bobbins in the same manner. 

Fig. 122 shows the mechanism for measur- 
ing the sliver wound on the bobbins and stop- 
ping the machine. The worm 1 is on one end 
of the front roll shaft and drives the gear 2 of 
seventeen teeth which is at the top of the angu- 
lar shaft 3. At the other end of the shaft 3 is a 
worm 4 which drives a gear 5 of sixty teeth. The 
gear 5 is on a stud with a gear 6 which is the 
change gear. The change gear, through the in- 
termediate gear 7 drives the sixty tooth gear 8, 
which is termed the knock-off gear. Near the periphery of the gear 
8 is a stud 10, which at the end of one revolution actuates the stop 
rod 9, which shifts the belt to the loose pulley. " 

To find the length of sliver deUvered during one revolution of 
the knock-off gear: First find the constant by multiplying together 
the driven gears (omitting the intermediate gear 7) and 3.1416 and 
dividing by 36 inches. The driven gears are 2, 5, and 8, which have 
17, 60, and 60 teeth, respectively. 

17 X 60 X 60 X 3.1416 




Fig. 122. 



36 



= 5340.72 Constant 



Having the constant, it is very easy to find the number of yards on 
each bobbin with any size change gear or front rolls. For examples 
assume that the change gear has 43 teeth and the diameter of the 
front roll is 4 inches: Multiply the diameter of the front roll by the 



!?10 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



193 



constant, and divide the product by the number of teeth in the change 
gear. 

4 X 5340.72 



43 



= 500+ Yards 



hO 



44: 



CZ] 



The empty bobbins are balanced to weigh the same amount, 
therefore, full bobbins doffed from the weigh box should weigh the 
same. When there are differences in the weights, it is due to irregular 
slivers. 

The full bobbins are weighed and made up into sets for the next 
operation. As the sliver from the weigh box has to pass through 
several operations before it reaches the roving machines, and if a par- 
ticularly even yarn is desired, it is advis- 
able to go through the same process of 
weighing and making up into sets at a 
later operation. 

The other machines in the set are a 
repetition of those explained, the only 
difference being in the number of spindles. 

Drafts. The method of calculating 
the drafts is the same on all drawing 
machines, and to make it clear Fig. 123 
has been prepared. 1 is the back roll 2h 
inches in diameter; 2 is the front roll 4 
inches in diameter; 3 is the draft change 
gear, which in this case has 32 teeth; 4 is an inside stud gear of 100 
teeth; 5 is the outside stud gear and has 84 teeth; and 6 is the 
back roll gear of 100 teeth. 7 and 8 are carrier rolls and merely 
support the sliver between the front and back rolls. 

To find the constant : Multiply together the diameter of the front 
roll and the number of teeth in gears 4 and 6, and divide the product 
by the diameter of the back roll multiplied by the number of teeth in 
gear 5. 

4 X 100 X 100 



4CZEZNKZ? 



Fig. 123. Diagram of Rolls. 



2i X 84 



= 190.5 Constant 



To find the draft when the constant and the number of teeth in 
the change gear are known: Divide the constant by the number of 



zn 



194 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

teeth in the change gear. With a change gear of 32 teeth the draft 
would be as follows : 

190.5 -H 32 = 6 approximately 

To find the change gear when the constant and draft are known : 
Divide the constant by the draft. Reversing the above example say 
the draft required is 6. 

190.5 -^ 6 = 32 approximately 

Twist. As the slivers are so thick from the first part of the draw- 
ing, and in fact up to the roving frame, no attempt is made to figure 
the exact twist, all that is required being an amount sufficient to pre- 
vent the sliver from being stretched. 

Ratches. Fig. 124 shows an end elevation of the rolls of a draw- 
ing frame. The length of the ratch is the distance between the nip 




Fig. 124. End View Of Rolls Showing Ratch. 

of the back rolls at C and the nip of the front rolls at D. To have 
a sound sliver free from thick and thin places, it is important that the 
ratch be set correctly. 

The front rolls are stationary, but the back rolls can be moved 
nearer to or farther from the front rolls. The wool is carefully 
measured and the ratch set to the length of the longest fibers. If the 
wool varies in length, say from 10 inches for the longest fibers to an 
average of 8 ii^ches, it is an excellent plan to set the ratch on the first 
drawing box at ten inches and gradually bring the rolls closer together 
at each operation, until when the roving frame is reached the ratch 
should be eight inches. 



212 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 195 

CONE DRAWING 

The difference between the system of drawing just described and 
cone drawing is merely a difference in the method of lifting the builder 
plate and winding the sliver on the bobbins. In open drawing the 
bobbin is dragged around by the sliver, the speed of the bobbin being 
the difference between the speed of the flyer and the length of sliver 
delivered by the front rolls, and wound on the bobbin. The lifter 
plate also moves up and ddwn at a uniform rate of speed, irrespective 
of whether the bobbin is full or empty. In cone drawing these 
defects are overcome; the speed of the bobbin and lifter plate being 
regulated by the cone mechanism. 

There is no doubt that cone drawing is better than open so far 
as results are concerned, the only difficulty being the cost of operating. 

Operation. There are two ways of running, the bobbins; i. e., 
either faster or slower than the spindles and flyers. Each way has 
its particular merits. The bobbin leading will be taken up first. 

The front rolls deliver the same quantity of sliver from beginning 
to end of the bobbin. As each layer is added to the bobbin it increases 
in diameter, therefore, each layer around the bobbin must be longer 
than the one preceding it, and the speed of the bobbin must be regu- 
lated accordingly. To illustrate this, take as an example a front roll 
four inches in diameter, which delivers sliver to a bobbin which is 
one inch in diameter when empty and four inches in diameter when full. 
It can now be seen that one layer around the full bobbin is four times 
as long as one layer around the empty bobbin, and consequently to 
maintain the same surface velocity the bobbin must travel just one- 
fourth as fast when full as when empty. 

Any irregularity in the method of winding the sliver on the bobbin, 
causing some of the layers to overlap or not he close enough, would 
cause too great or too little tension on the end. As has just been 
observed, when the bobbin is empty it must make four revolutions 
to wind as much sliver as would be wound by one revolution when the 
bobbin is full, consequently, when empty it must traverse four times 
as fast as when full. 

The speed of the lifter and the bobbins must be decreased in the 
same proportion, and the change must be made at the end of each 
traverse of the lifter. The difference to be made at each change will 
depend upon the thickness of the end. This gradual change is effected 



218 



196 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



by a pair of cones working in conjunction with a differential motion 
The cones furnish the variable speed and the motion enables it to be 
utilized. 

Differential Motion. At Fig. 125 is shown a diagrammatic 
drawing, with the relations of the various parts shown. A, the driving 
shaft, carries the driving pulley' P, the gear for driving the spindles S, 
the bobbin gear and differential motion B, and the twist change gear 
T, which drives the front roll and top cone. 

The differential motion is a combination of six gears, namely, 
a square of four gears C, D, E, and F; a crown gear G, and bobbin 
gear B ; C being the only gear fixed to the shaft. The crown gear is 
loose on the shaft and works independently of it, being driven by a 
train of gears from the cones. It can, therefore, revolve in either 




Fig. 125. Differential Motion. 

direction and carry the two bevels D and F around the other two, 
while they act also as intermediates to convey the motion from the 
driving wheel C to E. The gears E and B are fastened together and 
run loosely on the shaft. The bobbins are driven from B. The 
bearing H, on one side, and the gear C on the other hold the motion 
in position. 

If the crown gear is stationary while the driving gear C is running, 
E and B will run at the same speed, but in opposite directions; but if 
the crown gear revolves in the opposite direction to that in which the 
shaft revolves, it will influence the speed of E and B. For every 
revolution of the crown gear the bevels must make two revolutions 
on their own axes, and thus E receives its speed from two sources 
i. e., the crown gear and the driving bevel C. 

For example, if C makes fifty revolutions and the crown gear ten 



214 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 197 

in the opposite direction, the speed of E will be seventy, so that it 
receives an additional twenty revolutions. The crown gear is driven 
by the cones and the speed may be changed by changing the strap, 
which also changes the speed of the bobbin wheel. The motion may 
either be used for accelerated speed or for reducing the speed, which 
depends on whether the crown gear revolves with or contrary to the 
shaft. 

In Fig. 1.26 is given a general diagrammatic view of the various 
parts of a cone drawing frame. The twist gear T drives a shaft L, 
upon which is the top cone, and at the other end a gear driving the front 
roll gear, by means of intermediate gears. The top cone drives the 
bottom cone by means of a belt. The bottom cone is mounted upon 
a swing shaft, which allows the beit to be adjusted when a new set of 
bobbins is begun. 

The speed of the top cone A is constant, thus to alter the speed of 
B, we must traverse the belt across the cones. In Fig. 126 they are 
show^n in the proper position for a decrease of speed; the large end 
of the top cone being above the small end of the bottom cqne. Sup- 
pose the largest diameter of the cones is 6| inches, the smallest diame- 
ter 3j inches, that the shaft L makes 220 revolutions per minute, and 
that the belt is at the large end of the top cone. To find the speed of 
B, we would divide the diameter of the top cone by the diameter of 
the bottom cone where the belt touches each, and then multiply by 
the revolutions of L. (6| ^ SJ) X 220 = 440 revolutions. 

Suppose the belt is at the small end of the top cone and the large 
end of the bottom cone. The figures are (3J -=- 6t) X 220 which 
ecjuals 110 revolutions or just j of what it is at the other end. 

The speed of the bottom cone is transmitted by a train of three 
gears to a short horizontal shaft O, on which is a pinion E gearing into 
the crown gear G. Thus, as the crown gear is connected by gears 
to the cone, any slight variation of the cone affects the crown gear. 
The driving gear C and the crown gear impart their speed to the bob- 
bin gear. Its speed will be in excess of the spindle gear S. 

As an illustration of its influence, we will suppose the driving 
shaft is making 300 revolutions and the crown gear 20, when the 
bobbins are empty. This makes a total of 340 revolutions. If, when 
the bobbins are full, the crown wheel only makes five revolutions, 



81Y 



198 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPlNNlNC 




818 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 199 

there are then 310 revolutions or a reduction of thirty caused by the 
action of the cones. 

In Fig. 126, on the shaft O, there is a small bevel" pinion M which 
gears into N which is fixed on the top of a vertical shaft, at the opposite 
end of which is another pinion P which can engage either of the two 
bevels D, D^, when they are pushed into gear. The bevels D and D^ 
are held firm by keys to the shaft R, which has the Hfter change wheel 
H on one end. At the other end is a claw I for the purpose of sliding 
the shaft R so as to engage D and D^ alternately with P, at the change 
of the traverse, thereby changing the direction of H, which is con- 
nected with the lifter by means of a train of gears. The shaft R is 
connected with the building motion or lifter by a rod K attached to a 
lever U. The vertical shaft V works in conjunction with the lifter, and 
actuates the rack W and belt fork Z through the gear X. 

A bevel gear is attached to the base. of the shaft V, which gears 
with another on the horizontal shaft of the Hfter motion, which also 
has a ratchet change gear controlled by two pawls. At the top of this 
shaft V is placed a barrel which carries a weight. The weight assists 
the belt in traversing the cone and makes its motion uniform. 

Unlike the heavy drawing frames the smaller frames have two 
rows of spindles; one set behind and alternating with the other, 
allowing the grea,test number of spindles to be placed in a given space. 
Each spindle is driven by a pair of skew bevel gears. The smaller is 
fixed near the bottom of the spindle for driving and to allow for the 
traverse of the bobbin. It is fastened by a set screw which makes it 
easy to adjust, and meshes with a larger gear on the driving shaft. 
As each row of spindles is driven by a long shaft and these shafts are 
geared so as to be of the same speed as each other, it gives a very 
uniform tension to all the ends. 

Since the cones regulate the speed it will be well to see how the 
speed is conveyed from the socket gear to the differential motion. As 
the bobbin is being filled the bevel is always changing, owing to the 
influence of the lifter, thus making it necessary to mount the con- 
necting gears between the socket gear and bobbin shaft gear in such 
a manner that the continuity of motion shall be maintained regardless 
of the movement of the bobbin rail. Different methods are used by 
different manufacturers. 

In Fig. 127, an arrangement is shown where an intermediate 



2ti9 



200 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




gear is mounted in a swing. S is the driving gear, J the intermediate, 
and B the bobbin shaft gear. The stud upon which J works is sup- 
ported in a curved bracket with a slot to allow for the movement 

caused by the lifter. This method is 
objectionable because the speed in- 
creases as the lifter descends, caused 
by J being partially carried around S 
during the traverse of the lifter, the 
amount being governed by the length 
of the traverse. 

We will assume that J is rotating, 
as shown by the arrow A, but its roll- 
^^^- ^■^^- ing contact with S also gives it speed, 

and if both wheels are the same size, during the traverse J has to 
be carried one-fourth around S, therefore, it gains half a revolution 
in excess of its normal speed. S and J drive B and so influence it in 
a similar manner. 

A second manner is shown in Fig. 128, the socket wheel being a 
bevel. A gears into a second gear B 
fixed upon a swing shaft C; at the 
other end of the shaft is a third bevel 
gear D gearing with another F, at- 
tached to the driving bobbin E. The 
wheel D has a sunk key in the shaft 
to allov>^ it to adapt itself to the de- 
crease and increase of distance re- 
quired during the lift. The gears are 
kept in position by collars, while the 
box G and the swing bearing H enable 
the angle of the bearing to change. 
This arrangement also is somewhat 
affected by the rolling motion. 

Bobbin Lead and Flyer Lead. The 
relative merits of the two methods of 
winding should be considered. The 
bobbin lead is generally used as it 
gives the most satisfactory results 



q: 



<<g!CTTM^ 



3 



B 



IN 



Ik 



Fig. 128. 
This is due to the fact that in 



the driving of the spindles and bobbins two distinct trains of gears 



220 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 201 

are employed. The train which drives the spindles is directly con- 
nected with the main shaft and consists of only three or four gears, so 
that when the machine is started little or no delay occurs. 

The train of gears which drives the bobbin is much more com- 
plex. In the first instance there is the friction drive of the cones which 
is liable to a certain amount of slippage, particularly if the cone belt 
is not adjusted properly. In this connection it should be said that 
the cone belt should be made endless and have pressed lap joints, 
both sewn and cemented, so as to secure a regular surface and to 
prevent, as much as possible, the accumulation of grease. From the 
bottom cone there are gears driving the differential motion and then 
the bobbins, so there is much more opportunity for delay in the com- 
mencement of the bobbins. 

When the winding is done by the spindles or what is termed the 
flyer lead, this difference in starting is serious, especially in the case 
of small slivers, due to the strain placed on the sliver caused by the pull 
of the spindles before the bobbins begin to move. Another objection 
to this method of winding is that when an end breaks down, the bob- 
bin, continuing to revolve behind the flyer, has a tendency to unwind 
the material, which often becomes entangled with the other slivers or 
catches in the bevel gears, thus causing a large amount of waste and 
in some cases breakage of gears. 

FRENCH DRAWING 

The French system is especially adapted for short fine wools 
whose staples range from 2^ to 6 or 7 inches, though wool which 
measures as high as 10 inches is sometimes drawn. However, fine 
wools with staples varying from 3^ to 4^^ inches may be taken as a good 
average length for ordinary French drawing. 

The principle of the English systems of drawing is to draw the 
slivers by means of revolving rolls and then twist them into a rope-like 
form and wind on bobbins by means of flyers. In the French system 
the principle of drawing by means of rolls is used, but in other respects 
it is widely different. No twist is given the slivers, the fibers being 
kept as straight and parallel as possible until the spinning operation 
is reached. 

Principle. Throughout the whole process of French drawing 
the slivers are drafted between three pairs of top and bottom foils; 



221 



202 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



termed the back, middle, and front rolls. Between the middle and 
front rolls what is termed a porcupine roll is placed. There are a 
number of brass rings, through which steel pins are inserted, fixed 
on the porcupine roll, hence its name. The sliver passing from the 
back and middle rolls to the front roll passes between these pins, 
wliich serve the same purpose as the fallers in a gill box. 

The porcupine roll revolves slightly faster than the back rolls, 
but slower than the front rolls, and is fitted in a position a little higher 




Fig. 12y. First and Second Frencli Drawing Frames. 

than the nip of the rolls. The reason for this is to support the slivers 
and to ensure a thorough combing. 

The greatest care is needed in setting these machines, to be sure 
that the porcupine rollers are placed in their correct position or eleva- 
tion, as regards the nip of the back, middle and front rollers, for it is 
absolutely necessary that the pins pass through the full thickness 
and along the whole width of the slivers. The surface of the porcupine 
roll varies from ^ to -^q of an inch above the level of the nips of the 
front, middle and back rolls. The slivers should rest on the surface 
of the brass rollers at the bottom of the pins. 

Rubbing Motion. The wool, after it has been drawn through 
the porcupine by the front rollers, passes through a pair of rubbing 
leathers or aprons, which have not only a rubbing motion to rub the 
slivers into round condensed threads, but also have a revolving motion 
to wind them on bobbins. These bobbins are placed horizontally 



222 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 203 

on two fluted revolving rolls fixed to a traversing rail which, moving 
rapidly from end to end of the bobbins, causes the slivers to cross and 
re-cross each other as they are being wound on the bobbins. 

Single Meche and Double Meche. Two ends are generally 
wound on each bobbin throughout the whole system of French drawl- 
ing, commencing with the first drawing frame, though some firms 
believe in having only one end per bobbin for the first drawing frame. 
Bobbins w^ith one end or sliver are called single meche, and those with 
two ends are called double meche. The terms single and double meche 
may cause some confusion. 

Single meche or single end bobbins are put into the creel and come 
out double meche bobbins in the front; that is, with two ends on a 
bobbin. In the other instance, double meche bobbins are put into 
the creel of the next frame and come off on double meche bobbins in 
the front; that is, the bobbins have two threads at both the feed and 
delivery. 

We will deal with the first drawing frame, a type of wliich is 
shown in Fig. 129. Assume that it has 8 bobbins at the front or 
delivery side, and that there are 32 bobbins or balls from the gill 
balling machine in the creel, each being composed of one thread, and 
each bobbin on the delivery side having two ends. In this way, it 
will be seen that there are 32 ends in the creel to be drawn into 16 
ends, or two ends on each of the eight bobbins delivered, thus giving 
a doubling of two into one. Now in the second drawing frame, which 
we will say has 8 bobbins in front and 32 bobbins in the creel, we get 
a doubling of four into one, for the reason that in this case each bobbin, 
both in the creel and delivery, has two ends. 

In France it is customary to adopt single meche for the first and 
second drawing frames, and to commence double meche with the 
bobbins which are made on the third drawing frame. 

Operation. On an ordinary set of French drawing for producing 
a five dram roving, at the finishing roving frame, nine operations are 
generally suflacient, but the number of operations or frames varies 
according to the number of doublings required, the dram roving 
wanted at the finishing ro^dng frame, and the quality of wool being 
dealt with. In some cases only seven or eight passages are necessary 
when dealing with coarse counts, while for very fine counts, twelve 
or even thirteen passages are essential. 



223 



204 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

The above explains the principles of French drawing. Two, 
three, or four ends are always doubled into one, drawn through por- 
cupines, rubbed and wound on horizontal bobbins, with two ends 
per bobbin, without twist being put into the slivers. This process 
must impress one as being superior for soft bulky yarns to the English 
system, where at every operation twist is put into the sliver, making 
it into a sort of hard rope-like end which is drawn and redrawn, and 
twisted and retwisted at every succeeding operation. 

The most important part of every French drawing frame is the 
porcupine roller, in the construction of which, so far as the pinning is 
concerned, hes v/hat one may say is the secret of good drawing and 
spinning. The most suitable number of rows of pins, the pitch, 
thickness, and shape for the various kinds of wools used have only 
been arrived at by long experience and very careful attention and 
study. A book could be written on the porcupine regarding its height 
or level in relation to the other rollers, its diameter, the shape of its 
pins, and their size, as regards length and thickness, at each operation. 

In place of rubbing aprons, finely, fluted iron plates are being 
introduced. The slivers are rubbed between these plates, and it is 
claimed that they give the wool a more even rub and a better luster. 

The pins in the porcupines or combs, as they are sometimes 
called, should be somewhat inclined, and point away from the front 
roller, so as to hold the wool more firmly during the process of comb- 
ing. This causes them to get filled with dust and dirt and they should 
be cleaned from time to time. 

To prepare 5400 pounds of roving of which 40 yards weigh 5 
drams, or in other words 3.5 hank roving (which means that S-^ hanks, 
each containing 560 yards, weigh one pound), in a week of 50 working 
hours, the following drafts and doublings are necessary. The process 
comprises nine operations the first consisting of two six-spindle gill 
boxes. 

At each of these gill boxes four ends are doubled into one so there 
are twenty-four tops at the -back. The draft at this box is 6.6, the 
diameter of the front roll is 2 inches, and it runs at a speed of 60 revolu- 
tions per minute. The tops weigh 256 drams for 40 yards, or are 
.0714 hank sliver, which with a draft of 6.6 gives a 155 dram or .1 178 
hank sliver on the bobbins. 

The weight produced per bobbin on these boxes is 475 pounds, 



224 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 205 

or 2850 pounds per box, which gives a total for the two boxes of 5700 
pounds per week. Each bobbin will contain 10 pounds of sliver. 

Thirty-two of these bobbins are taken to what is really the first 
operation in the French drawing, namely, the first drawing frame, 
and placed in the creel. This frame has eight bobbins in front, so 
four bobbins are doubled into one; but as the bobbins in front have 
two ends on each, only two ends and not four ends are doubled into 
one. It may be well to state here that all the operations in this process 
are double meche. The draft here is four; the diameter of the front 
roller, 1| inches; and the speed of the front roller 120. The bobbins 
in this frame are 15f inches long, and hold about 8f pounds of sliver. 

The dram sliver is 77.67 and the hank sliver .2356. The hanks 
per sliver (not per bobbin, as there are two ends on a bobbin) are about 
100 per week. 

Thirty-two of the bobbins from the first drawing frame are then 
placed in the creel of the second drawing frame, which is a similar 
machine to the first. 

As the bobbins in the creel of this frame are double meche, and 
not like those in the creel of the first drawing frame, there will be 
different doublings as regards the number of ends, though there are 
still four bobbins at the back, doubled into one bobbin at the front. 
Yet as each of the bobbins in the creel has two ends, like those in front, 
there are really eight ends on each bobbin in front, but only four ends 
doubled into one. With a draft of 4.5 a dram sliver of 69, or a hank 
sliver of .2650 is produced. The diameter of the front roll is If inches 
and the speed 120, the same as on the first drawing frame. The 
bobbins are 15f inches long and each one holds about 7| pounds of 
sliver. 

Twenty-four of these bobbins are placed in the creel of the third 
drawing frame which has twelve bobbins in front; giving a doubling 
of two ends into one, with a draft of 3.4. The dram sliver is 40.62 
and the hank sliver .4504. The diameter of the front roller is If 
inches and the speed is 164. The bobbins are 15f inches long and 
each one contains about 7 pounds of sliver. 

Forty-eight of these bobbins are placed in the creel of the next 
frame, w4iich is the reducer or reducing frame, with twenty-four 
bobbins in front, giving a doubling of two ends into one, with a draft 
of 3.9. The dram sliver from this frame is 21.06 and the hank sliver 



287 



206 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



.8784. The front roller is If inches in diameter and its speed is 169. 
The bobbins are 9| inches long and each one holds 5 pounds of sliver. 

Ninety-six bobbins from here are placed in the creel of the next 
machine, which is the slubbing frame. This also has twenty-four 
bobbins in front but four ends are doubled into one, with a draft of 
4.1. The dram sliver is 20.32, and the hank shver .9003. The 
diameter of front roll is 1|-, and the speed is 197. The bobbins are 
9f inches long and hold about 3 pounds of sliver. 

Ninety-six of these bobbins are placed in the creel of the next 
machine, which is the first intermediate frame. There are twenty- 
four bobbins in front. Four ends are doubled into one, with a draft 




I 



\ 



Fig. 130. Driving Head. 

of 4.4, which gives a dram sliver of 18.48, or a hank roving of .9903. 
The front roll is 1| inches in diameter and runs at 227 revolutions per 
minute. The bobbins from this box are 8 inches long and hold about 
2J pounds of sliver. 

Ninety-six bobbins from here are placed in the creel of the next 
operation, which is the second intermediate frame. This also has 
twenty-four bobbins in front, four ends being doubled into one, with 
a draft of 4, so that the sliver will be the same as in the previous 
operation. The front roll is one inch in diameter, and has a speed of 
220. The bobbins from this frame also are 8 inches long and hold 
about 2-^ pounds of sliver. 

Ninety-six bobbins from here are placed in the creel of the next 



228 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



207 



machine, which is the roving frame. This has forty-eight bobbins 
in front so only two ends are doubled into one, with a draft of 3.7. 
The dram roving is 10, or the hank roving 1.832, The front roller 
is 1 inch in diameter and runs at 220 revolutions per minute. The 
bobbins are 8 inches long and hold about 2^ pounds of sliver. 







From here the bobbins are taken to two finishing roving frames, 
each frame containing forty-eight bobbins in front. Ninety-six 
bobbins from the last roving frame are placed in the creel of each of- 
these two finishing roving frames, two ends being doubled into one^ 



229 



208 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



with a draft of 3.91. The resuhing sliver or roving weighs 5.11 drams, 
or is 3.58 hank, the required size approximately. The diameter of 
the front rolls on these machines is one inch and the speed is 220 
revolutions per minute. The bobbins are S inches long and hold 
about 2h pounds of roving. 

Construction. The illustration shown in Fig. 130 shows the 
driving head. The larger gear 1 is on the driving shaft, and carries 
the crank arm 13, which actuates the traverse motion of the aprons 
(19 and 20 in Fig. 131). The motion of the aprons is the same as 
the apron condenser on the finisher card of a woolen set; i. e., a side- 




Fig. 133. Showing Mechanism for Driving Rub Aprons. 

wise motion to rub or condense the roving. They also have a revolv- 
ing motion to carry the roving forward to the calender roll 17 (Fig. 
131). 

The gear 1 (Fig. 130) also drives the intermediate gear 2 which 
in turn drives the gear 3 on the front roll shaft. The gear 4 also is 
on the front roll shaft, inside of 3, and drives the inside stud gear 5. 
The gear 6 is on the same stud as 5 and drives the gear 7 which is on 
the back roll shaft, and through which the back roll receives its motion. 
The gear 12 is on the calender roll shaft and receives motion from the 
front roll shaft through the gears 8, 9, 10 and 11. 

A sectional view is shown in Fig. 131. 1 is a guide to guide the 



230 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 200 

slivers to the small trumpet guide 2, which sets on a traverse rail and 
causes the roving to traverse across the surface of the back rolls 3 and 
3A. 4 and 5 are carrier rolls, 6 is the porcupine, and 7 and 8 are the 
front rolls. The roll 9 and the brush 10 are to remove the dirt which 
would otherwise accumulate on the roll 8. 11 and 12 are rolls which 
carry the bottom apron 20, and 13, 14, and 15 answer the same purpose 
for the top apron 19. 16 is a trumpet guide, 17 is the calender or 
winding roll, and 18 is the ball of sliver ready for the next operation. 

The illustration. Fig. 132, shows the method of driving the upper 
and lower rub or condensing aprons. B is the driving pulley; C is 
the main driving shaft; D is the crank, which, through the crank 
arm 13 actuates the oscillating motion of the rub aprons; E is the 
eccentric attached to the crank arm 13, and to the rub apron shafts. 
It will be seen that when the crank shaft is in motion through the 
eccentric, the top rub apron 24 will move in one direction while the 
bottom rub apron 23 moves in the opposite direction. The surfaces 
of the aprons are thus rubbing against each other. The roving runs 
between them and is rubbed into a round thread of roving. 1 is the 
large gear on the main shaft, which, through the intermediate gear 2, 
drives the front roll gear 3. 

On the shaft with 12 is the long gear which allows the gear 27 
to traverse the full width of the ball of roving. F is the shaft on which 
the winding or calender rolls are placed and on which the gear 27 is 
placed. It receives its traverse motion from the mangle wheel 20. 
The mangle wheel is driven by the gear 19, which is fastened on the 
upright shaft G at the other end of which the gear 18 is fixed, and 
receives motion from the gear 17, which in turn is driven by the gear 16. 
16 is on the same stud with the bevel gear 15, which is driven from 
the bevel gear 14 on the main shaft. 



231 




WORSTED RING SPINNING FRAME 

Piatt Bros. & Co. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED 

SPINNING 



PART IV 



SPINNING 



The rovings from the last frame of a set of drawing, and from 
the condenser of a finisher card are carried to ihe spinning room 
for the final operation in yarn manufacturing. , 

As in the preparatory operations, the methods used on wor- 
steds differ from those employed on wool, the object of the latter 
being to produce a soft thread in which the ends of the fibers pro- 
trude from the core, while the object of the former is to produce 
a yarn in which the fibers lie. parallel to each other and lengthwise 
of the thread. 

WORSTED SPINNING 

There are four distinct methods of spinning worsted yarns : 
the flyer jrame, cap frame, ring frame, and ihe uorsied mule used 
for spinning roving made on the French system of drawing. The 
flyer frame was the first to come into use; the cap frame came next; 
and was followed by the ring frame. The mule of the French system 
is distinctly different from the others and must be considered quite 
apart from them. 

The spinning process may be divided into three operations 
as follows: first, drawing out or. drafting; second, twisting the drawn 
out fibers; and third, winding the fibers (which are now yarn) on 
the bobbin. The third operation, though necessary in any prac- 
tical system of spinning, is not actually a part of the spinning oper- 
ation for the yarn is spun before it is wound on the bobbin as may 
be seen in the case of the mule, which is an intermittent motion. 
However, the winding operation is performed on the spinning frame 
and is of great importance, so it will be considered a part of the spin- 
ning process. 



233 



212 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

The flyer, cap, and ring frames differ only in the construction 
of their spindles, methods of imparting twist, and winding the yarn 
on bobbins. 

Flyer Spinning Frame. The flyer frame is built on the same 
principle as the open drawing machines. It has back, front, and 
carrier rolls to draw out the roving, and spindles, with flyers screwed 
to the top, to impart twist and wind the yarn on the bobbins. 

The illustration shown in Fig. 133 represents a flyer spinning 
frame and shows very clearly the principles on which it works. 
The bobbins of roving doffed from the roving frame of the draw- 
ing set are placed on the pegs at the top of the frame. The ends 
are then passed between the back rolls which slowly draw the rov- 
ings from the bobbins and pass them to three sets of carrier rolls, 
which in turn pass them to the front rolls. The front rolls draw 
out the roving as much as required and pass the attenuated end 
to the flyer, around one wing of which it is wound once or twice 
and then passed to the bobbin. 

The diagram, Fig. 134, shows how the above operations take 
place. 1 is a bobbin of roving wliich is supposed to be set in the 
creel provided for that purpose. The end of roving is drawn from 
the bobbin and passed through the roving guide 2 to the back rolls 

3 and SA. From the back rolls the roving is carried by the roUs 

4 to the front rolls 5 and 5A, which, like the front rolls on a draw- 
ing frame, revolve faster than the back rolls and give the draft. 
The difference between, the surface speed of the front and back 
rolls is the draft, or represents the number of inches of yarn drawn 
out of one inch of roving. 

The standard diameter of the bottom back roll 3A is one and 
one-quarter inches, while the bottom front roll 5A is made in 2h, 
3, 4, and 5-inch sizes for different kinds of stock. The four-inch 
roll is commonly used and will be taken as the standard. The 
reason for giving the sizes of the bottom rolls instead of the sizes 
of the top rolls is because the latter are driven from the former and 
therefore must have the same surface speed regardless of their size. 

By again referring to Fig. 134, it will be noticed that the yarn 
passes from the front rolls through an eye board to the flyer and 
is wound on the bobbin B. The bobbin is carried up and down on 
the spindle by the lifter plate which moves up and down the spin- 



234 



214 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



die. Three kinds of bobbins are used: a, the ordinary bobbin 
with a head at each end and which fills evenly from one end to the 
other; h, the tube which requires a double motion to fill it, namely, 
the ordinary up and down motion traversing about one and one-half 
inches, and a constantly lowering motion, which ultimately causes 
the tube to be filled over its entire length but to be much larger in 




Fig. 134. Drawing Showing Method of Drafting, Twisting and Winding. 

diameter at the middle than at the ends; and c, the bobbin which 
has a flange at the lower end, and which requires three motions 
to fill it, i. e., a very short one at first which fills the lower end and 
during which the lifter plate traverses very little, and a longer trav- 
erse with a constantly lowering motion the same as for a tube, 
so that the full bobbin gradually tapers from the bottom toward 
the top. 



236 



I 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



215 



The spindles are driven by bands which pass around a whirl 
on the spindle and a cylinder which is on the main shaft of the spin- 
ning frame. 

Calculations. The illustration, Fig. 135, is a plan of the rolls 
and the gearing that drives them. A is the back roll, B is the front 
roll, C the draft change gear, D the inside gear of the double stud, 
E the outside gear of the double stud, and F is the back roll gear. 
X, Y and Z are the small carrier rolls. This illustration is to show 
the method of figuring the draft of the frame. 



r- 



= -c 



Pig. 135. Plan of Draft Rolls and Gearing 



To find the draft of a spinning frame: Multiply the diam- 
eter of the bottom front roll by the number of teeth in the driving 
gears and divide the product by the product of the diameter of the 
back roll multiplied by the number of teeth in the driven gears. 
To prevent confusion in determining which are the driven and which 
are the driving gears the following statement should be memorized: 
All gears which if increased in number of teeth would increase the 
draft are drivers, and all gears which if increased in number of teeth 
would give less draft are driven gears. 

Explanation. As the back roll A delivers the roving to the 
froijt roll B it is evident that if it were increased in size it would 
deliver more roving to the front roll, therefore the draft would be 
reduced. On the other hand, if the size of the front roll B were 
increased it would draw out the roving more, consequently the 
draft would be increased. 



337 



216 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

If the draft change gear C, which is on the front roll shaft, were 
increased in size it would drive the back roll faster in proportion 
to the front roll and therefore deliver more roving to the front roll, 
consequently making the draft smaller. If the inside stud gear D 
were increased in size it would have the opposite effect, increasing 
the draft. If the outside stud gear E were increased in size it would 
have the same effect as increasing the size of C. If the back roll 
gear F were increased in size it would have the same effect as increas- 
ing the size of D. 

As the diameter of the front roll is 4 inches and gears D and 
F each have 100 teeth, and as the diameter of the back roll is Ij 
inches and gears C and E have 64 and 84 teeth respectively, the 
calculation would be as follows: 

4 X 100 X 100 r r -n f 
H X 64 X 84 ^ ^-^^ -^''^** 

To facilitate the work of calculating the draft with different 
change gears the constant is found by leaving the number of teeth 
in the change gear out of the calculation. 

4 X 100 X 100 

11 w o^ = 380.95 Constant 

ij X o4 

To find the change gear required to give a certain draft: Di- 
vide the constant by the draft. 

For example, if the draft given above were required the calcu- 
lation would be as follows: 

380.95 
595 = 64 Change gear 

To find the draft with any size change gear: Divide the con- 
stant by the number of teeth in the change gear. 

For example, if a change gear of 47 teeth were used the draft 
would be as follows: 

380.95 _ . 

^^ = 8.1 Draft 

Carrier Rolls. In Fig. 135 there are three rolls marked X, 
Y, and Z, between the front and back rolls. These rolls do not 
affect the draft, their purpose being to support the roving in its 
passage from the back to the front roll. There is, however, a small 



238 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 217 

draft between the back roll and the back carriers and also between 
each of the pairs of carrier rolls. This, however, does not affect 
the draft of the frame and is merely to keep the roving straight. 

As previously explained in connection with Fig. 133, the thread 
of yarn drawn out from the roving is wound around one leg or wing 
of the flyer, then passed through the eye at the bottom and wound 
upon the bobbin. As the spindle revolves the bottom travels up 
and down on the traverse rail, which allows the flyers to guide the 
yarn as required to build a good bobbin of yarn. 

Twisting and Winding. In twisting and winding the yarn, 
the flyer operates on the same principle as in open drawing. The 
spindle or rather the flyer puts twist into the yarn in the following 
manner: The yarn is passed through the eye of the flyer and as 
the flyer revolves it carries the yarn around with it, giving one turn 
of twist for each revolution. 

The yarn is delivered by the front rolls at a constant speed 
and must be wound on the bobbin at the same speed. If the bob- 
bin and flyer traveled at the same speed there would be only twist- 
ing, no yarn being wound on the bobbin, but as the bobbin is loose 
on the spindle its tendency is to remain stationary, and it is dragged 
around by the yarn. Thus the amount of yarn wound on the bob- 
bin represents the difference in the speeds of the bobbin and flyer. 

As the diameter of the bobbin increases it is dragged around 
faster. This statement may seem puzzling at first and will bear 
further explanation. 

We will call the speed of the flyer 3000 R. P. M., and the speed 
of the empty bobbin, which we will call one inch in diameter, 1500 
R. P. M. As the circumference of a one inch bobbin is 3.14 + 
inches, each revolution that the flyer makes more than the bobbin 
will wind 3.14+ inches of yarn on the bobbin, and while the flyer 
is making two hundred revolutions it will wind 100 X 3.14+ inches 
or 314+ inches of yarn on the bobbin. 

When the bobbin is two inches in diameter, its circumference 
is 6.28+ inches and if the flyer and bobbin continue to run at the 
same relative speed, two hundred revolutions of the flyer vdll cause 
628+ inches of yarn to be wound on the bobbin. As the speed 
of the flyers and the delivery of the front rolls are constant this could 
not be done. 



239 



218 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



The diagrams shown in Fig. 136 will help to make this plain. 
Number 1 shows the flyer as having made one-half of a revolution 
from A to B, and the empty bobbin, which we will call one inch in 
diameter, one-quarter of a revolution, from C to D. The length 
of the yarn wound will be equal to the distance around the barrel 




Fig. 136. Diagram Showing Difference in Speeds of Flj'er and Bobbin. 

of the bobbin from D to E which is one-quarter of its circumfer- 
ence or about .78 of an inch. 

Diagram number 2 shows the bobbin as two inches in diam- 
eter. The flyer has made one-half of a revolution from A to B, 
the same as in Diagram 1, and the bobbin has made one-quarter 
of a revolution, from C to D. The length wound is indicated by 
the distance around the bobbin from D to E, which is 1.57 inches, 
twice as much as in Diagram 1 where the bobbin is empty. 

Now as the speed of the flyer is constant and the length of 
yarn delivered by the front rolls is always the same, it is evident 
that the amount wound upon the bobbin can be only what is deliv- 
ered by the front rolls, and as the larger the bobbin grows the greater 
is its circumference, the only way that the same length of yarn can 
be wound is by increasing the speed of the bobbin so that the same 
ratio in its circumferential velocity shall be maintained at all times 
between it and the flyer. 

Diagram number 3 shows the bobbin two inches in diameter. 
In order to wind the proper length of roving the bobbin makes about 
three-eighths of a revolution or. from C to D while the flyer travels 
from A to B. The length of yarn wound on the bobbin is repre- 
sented by the distance D-E, which, measured on the circumference 
of the bobbin, will be found to be the same as the distance D-E 
in the first diagram. 



240 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 219 

As the bobbin increases in size it becomes heavier and, as shown 
in Fig. 136, travels faster. This increased weight increases the fric- 
tion and in order to regulate the drag, washers of cloth or leather are 
placed on the spindle betw^een the bobbin and the lifter plate. 

Cloth w^ashers drag very much lighter than leather w^ashers 
and are generally used for the lighter counts of yarn. When cloth 
washers do not drag sufficiently hard a leather washer is placed 
on top of the cloth washer. This method of regulating the drag 
is one of the difficult points in flyer spinning and requires good 
judgment. 

The drag of the yarn can also be regulated by winding the 
thread around the wing of the flyer. For instance, if it is wound 
three times around the wing, the drag is less than if it were wound 
around once, or not at all. The reason for this is that when the 
yarn is not wound around the wing but merely hooked in the eye 
at the end of the wing, the bobbin drags the yarn all the way from 
the nip of the front rolls, but when the yarn is wound two or three 
times around the wing the drag of the bobbin is almost wholly con- 
fined to the comparatively short distance between the eye of the 
flyer and the surface of the bobbin. Wrapping the yarn around 
the flyer wing therefore has the effect of preventing the tension from 
getting above that point, which leaves the yarn between the top of 
the flyer with very little strain. 

The twist is put into the yarn, as it leaves the front rolls, by 
the spindles and flyers, which have a speed of about 2800 revolu- 
tions per minute. The front rolls have a speed of about forty revo- 
lutions per minute and are usually four inches in diameter. Tak- 
ing these as the actual figures for the purpose of calculation, the 
method of finding the twist would be as follows: 

The diameter of the front roll being four inches the circumfer- 
ence would be twelve and one-half inches, approximately, and as 
it makes forty revolutions per minute the length of yarn delivered 
per minute would be five hundred inches. The spindle and flyer 
revolve twenty-eight hundred times while the bottom front roll is 
making forty revolutions. 

Now it will be easily understood that if the yarn is held at the 
front rolls and the flyer is turned one revolution there wlW be one 
turn of twist in the yarn, so if the flyer is turned twenty-eight hundred 



241 



220 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



times while the front rolls deliver five hundred inches there will be 
twenty-eight hundred turns of twist in five hundred inches of yarn, 
or five and three-fifths turns of twist in every inch of yarn. 

2800 



500 



5 1 Twist 



The above may be termed the theoretical twist, as it makes 
no allowance for the loss caused by slipping of bands and conse- 
quent reduction in the speed of the spindle and flyer. 




Fig. 137. Parts of Spinning Frame Affecting Twist. 

The diameter of the bands also affects the twist. If the whirl 
of the spindle is V-shaped a small band will sink deeper into the 
groove than a large one, and therefore will have the effect of trav- 
eling around a smaller diameter than would be the case if a large 
band were used. It will be readily seen that the small band would 
drive the spindle faster and consequently put in more twist than 
a band of larger diameter. 

Take-Up, The take-up due to twisting greatly affects the cal- 



242 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 221 

culations. For instance, if a yard of yarn is taken and twisted 
by hand it will be noticed that the yarn gradually grows shorter 
as twist is added. Taking this item into consideration with the 
other qualities which affect the twist it will be seen that the only 
way to find the actual twist is to test the finished yarn with a twist 
finder. 

Calculations. The illustration in Fig. 137 is a diagram show- 
ing all the parts of the spinning frame which affect the twist in any 
way. A is the flyer; B the spindle; W the whirl; C the cylinder; 
D the band which drives the spindle; E the twist pulley which is 
on the cylinder shaft; F the twist pulley on the same stud as the 
change gear; G the change or twist gear; H the front roll gear; 
and R is the bottom front roll. 

The dimensions of the parts which affect the twist are as fol- 
lows: The whirl on the spindle is Ij inches in diameter; cylinder 
10 inches diameter; twist pulley E, 9 inches in diameter; twist 
pulley F, 18 inches in diameter; change gear G, 34 teeth; front 
roll gear H, 268 teeth; and circumference of bottom front roll, 12^ 
inches. 

To find the twist: Multiply the diameter of the cylinder (10) 
by the diameter of the pulley F (18) and the number of teeth on 
the front roll gear H (268), and divide the product by the product 
of the diameter of the whirl (If) diameter of twist pulley E (9), 
number of teeth in the change gear G (34), and circumference of 
the front roll 12i. 

10 X 18 X 268 -, . 

liX9X34Xl2i = 10 + ^^''' 
By a careful reference to Fig. 137 and the above calculation 
it will be seen that all those factors which, if increased in size, would 
cause less twist to be put into the yarn are multiplied together, and 
all those factors which if increased would cause more twist to be 
put into yarn are multiphed together. The product of the latter 
is then divided by the product of the former and the quotient is 
the number of turns of twist per inch. 

The twist constant may be found by omitting the change gear, 
and the turns of twist for a change gear of any number of teeth 
found by dividing the constant by the number of teeth on the change 
gear. 



243 



222 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



For example : 



10 X 18 X 268 

11 X 9 X 12i 



= 343.04 Constant 



To find the number of turns of twist with a change gear of 

40 teeth divide the constant by 40. 

343.04 ^ 

. = 8.57 + Twist 

To find the change gear necessary to give 11.5 turns of twist 

divide the constant by 11.5. 

343.04 ^ 
-,-, r = 30 — Change gear 

The above calculations, however, give only the theoretical twist 
and if the yarn be tested it will be found that there is a loss of about 
17 per cent, so that in place of 10 mrns of twist, as calculated in con- 
junction with Fig. 137, there would be actually S^o- turns per inch. 
To find the actual twist the following method is often resorted 
to. A chalk mark is made on the top of the cylinder, as indicated 
by A in Fig. 138, and another mark made on the front of the spindle 




Fig. 138. Diagram Explaining Method of Finding Actual Twist. 

whirl as indicated by B. The cylinder is then turned one com- 
plete revolution and the number of revolutions of the spindle counted 
very carefully. 

With a 10-inch cylinder and a l|-inch whirl the spindle will 
make about seven revolutions to one revolution of the cylinder. 
Substituting these figures for the diameter of cylinder and whirl 
the calculation will give 8.83 turns of twist. 
7X18X268 _ 
1 X 9 X 34 X 121 »-»^ 
Allowing five per cent for shrinkage or take-up on account of twist, 
the calculation would give very nearly the exact number of turns 
per inch in the yarn. 

8.83 X .95 = 8.39 Actual twist 



244 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 223 

To find the constant omit the change gear: 

7 X 18 X 268 

1 y Q y 191 ^ ^^^ Constant 

To find the change gear required for any number of turns of 
twist: Divide the constant by the number of turns of twist re- 
quired as explained above. 

To find the number of turns of twist when using any size change 
gear: Divide the constant by the number of teeth on the change 
gear, as explained above. 

On cap spinning frames where the spindle whirls are smaller 
in diameter and are usually driven by tapes, the percentage of loss 
is even greater than on the flyer frames, and the above method of 
finding the actual twist will be found very useful. 

Drafts. The methods of finding drafts and twists having been ex- 
plained, the method of calculating the draft required to reduce a given 
weight of roving to the required number or counts of yarn will be taken up. 

For example, if a 32s yarn is to be spun out of a 4 dram roving 
(which means that 40 yards of roving weigh 4 drams) : Multiply 
the counts (32) by the dram roving (4) and divide the product by 
18.3 which is the constant for 40 yards of roving, 

— r^-o — = 7 Draft required 

If this draft is divided into the draft constant the quotient will 
be the change gear required to spin 32s yarn out of 4 dram roving. 
" The use of 18.3 as the constant for 40 yards of roving may 
cause some confusion. It is used to eliminate the necessity of in- 
cluding the number of yards in a hank of worsted and the number 
of drams in a pound, in the calculation. 

The method of finding the constant of 40 yards of roving is as 
follows : 

There are 560 yards in one hank of worsted (either yarn or 
roving) and as 40 yards is generally used in calculations the rela- 
tion of 560 to 40 is found. As 560 divided by 40 equals 14 (560 -^ 
40 = 14), forty yards must be y^^ of a hank. There are 256 drams 
in a pound, so this is divided by 14 to give the weight of 40 yards of 
number one worsted yarn or roving. 

256 -^ 14 = 18.3 Constant- 



245 



224 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

The whole calculation may be summed up as follows: To find the 
constant for 40 yards of worsted, multiply the drams in one pound 
(256) by 40 yards and divide by the standard number of worsted 
(560). 

256 X 40 

560 = ^^-^ 

If the roving is weighed in grains instead of in drams, as is 
sometimes the case, it is necessary to find a new constant as follows: 

To find the constant for 40 yards of roving: Multiply the 
number of grains in one pound (7000) by 40 yards and divide the 
product by the standard number of worsted (560). 

7000 X 40 

z}^ = 500 Constant 

560 

To find the draft required to spin a 32 yarn from 109.2 grain 
roving which is the same as a 4 dram roving: Multiply the counts 
(32) by the grain roving (109.2) and divide by the constant. 

32 X 109.2 ^ ^ ^ 

PTTTc = 7 Drait 

500 

Cap Spinning Frame. The only difi^erence between the flyer 
spinning frames and cap spinning frames is in the construction 
of the spindle, with the consequent difl^erence in the method of 
imparting twist to, and winding the yarn on bobbins. The arrange- 
ment of rolls for drafting is exactly the same. 

The cap frame is especially adapted for fine counts of yarn, 
but coarse yarns also are spun on cap frames as the production is 
much greater than on flyer frames, the spindles on the former being 
run as high as seven thousand revolutions per minute against twenty- 
eight hundred of the flyer spindles. This great difference in speed, 
however, is not wholly in favor of the cap frame as the yarn is much 
rougher and the percentage of flyings much greater than from a 
flyer frame. 

The illustration, Fig. 139, shows a cap spinning frame. A 
comparison with Fig. 133 will show that the only difference between 
flyer and cap frames is in the spindles and caps. As will be seen 
in Fig. 139 the spindles do not extend to the bottom rail of the frame 
as is the case in the flyer frame. Moreover, they do not revolve 



246 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



225 



but are screwed into the spindle rail. The part that revolves 
tube or shell which fits inside the bobbin. 



IS a 




The illustration, Fig. 140, shows the cap, spindle, and tube. 
The spindle 1 is stationary, as stated above, and is screwed into 



247 



226 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




the spindle rail 2. The tube 3 is a brass shell with an iron whirl 
4 fastened at its lower end. The cap 5 is shown in section in the 

illustration. It fits on top of 

the spindle. 

Caps are made of steel and 

in various sizes and shapes to 

correspond with the sizes and 

shapes of various bobbins. 

There is a shuttle cap which 

is used with a bobbin for fill- 
ing yarns; the bobbin must 

be made to fit the shuttle and 

of course the cap must be 

made to fit the bobbin. Caps 

should be large enough to ad- 
mit the full bobbin inside and 

have about one-eighth of an 

inch to spare in diameter, 

and one-fourth of an inch in 

length. 

The lifter plate (shown in 

Fig. 139, and 6 in Fig. 140) 

traverses up and down the 

spindle, carrying the tube and 

consequently , the bobbin wi;h 

it. The yarn is guided on the 

bobbin by the bottom rim of 

the cap, and the position of 

the bobbin is changed by the 

lifter plate. Fig. 141 shows 

a filling bobbin about half 

filled with yarn. A is the cap, 

B the bobbin, W the whirl, L 

the lifter plate, R the spindle 

rail, and S the spindle. 

The cap and bobbin for 
warp yarns are quite different in size and shape, 
usually double headed and both the bobbin and cap are of much 



•W 



Fig. 140. Spindle 
and Tube with Sec- 
tional View of Cap. 



V 

Fig. 141. Partially Filled 

Filling Bobbin on 

Cap Spindle. 

The bobbin is 



248 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



227 




1 r 



larger diameter than the filling or shuttle bobbin and cap. The 
illustration Fig. 142 shows a warp bobbin and cap. In filling these 
bobbins the lifter plate traverses from one head of the 
bobbin to the other. 

Warp yarn is also spun on single head bobbins 
in the same manner as filling. The bobbins and caps 
are larger, however, to allow more yarn to be wound 
on the bobbin. This method is growing more popular 
as it eliminates the necessity of changing the lifter motion 
when changing from warp to filling. 

Twisting. The tube rests on the lifter plate and 
revolves around the spindle, carrying the bobbin, 
which rests on the whirl, around with it. A groove 
is cut in the bottom of the bobbins which fits on a 
pin (shown at 7 in Fig. 140) placed at the top of the 
whirl. This very effectively prevents the bobbin from 
slipping. 

The tube, with the bobbin, revolving around the 
spindle puts twist into the yarn. The yarn revolves 
around the bottom rim of the cap as it is wound on 
the bobbin. The cap remains stationary while the 
lifter plate travels up and down the length of the 
traverse and forms the shape of bobbin desired. 

The tube and bobbin revolve in the same direc- 
tion as the flyer spindles; i. e., from left to right, and 
while putting twist in the yarn also wind it on the 
bobbin. If the bobbins are wound too soft there are 
two methods of making them hard: first, by in- 
creasing the speed of the spindles, and second, by 
lowering the spindle rails, for as the spindle is fast in 
the spindle rail, and as the cap is stationary on the 
spindle, it follows that as the spindle rail is lowered 
the bottom edge of the cap will be farther from the ^. ,,„ ^ 

^ '^ . ■ Fig. 143. Warp 

nip of the front rolls, and the drag increased in Bobbin and 

Cap. 
proportion. 

The methods of calculating the draft and twist are the same 
on both cap and flyer frames so will not be repeated. The arrange- 
ment for drafting is identical on both frames, and while the method 




249 



228 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

of putting in twist is different, the bobbin instead of the flyer carry- 
ing the yarn around, it is only necessary to substitute the speed of 
the bobbin on cap frames for the speed of the spindle and flyer on 
flyer frames to find the turns of twist. 

For example, to give a yarn twelve turns of twist per inch on 
the flyer frame, the flyer makes twelve revolutions while the front 
rolls deliver one inch of yarn. To give a yarn twelve turns of twist 
per inch on the cap frame', the tube and consequently the bobbin 
make twelve revolutions while the front rolls are delivering one 
inch of yarn. The amount of yarn wound on the bobbins is of 
course the same as deUvered by the front rolls, less the small take- 
up caused by the twist. 

While the production of cap frames is much greater than that 
of flyer frames there are some disadvantages. There is nothing to 
protect the yarn while it is being whirled around the cap at a speed 
of from six to seven thousand revolutions per minute. The fric- 
tion against the air is so great that it raises the fibers on the yarn. 
In coarse counts this gives the yarn a very rough and hairy appear- 
ance, but in the finer counts this defect is not noticeable and the 
large production offsets all disadvantages. 

Owing to the method of winding the yarn on cap frames it is 
wound around, the bobbin in the opposite direction from that of a 
flyer frame because, as it were, the bobbin drives the yarn before it 
and takes it up in the same way that it revolves. 

Ring Spinning Frame. Ring Spinning is the newest of the 
systems for spinning worsted yarns, although it is almost univer- 
sally used for spinning cotton. 

The illustration. Fig. 143, shows a ring spinning frame and it 
will be noted that it very closely resembles the flyer and cap frames. 
The same operations are performed on all these machines but the 
methods of imparting twist and winding the yarn on bobbins, differ. 

The method of drafting is the same as explained in connection 
with flyer spinning but after the yarn leaves the front rolls it is treat- 
ed somewhat differently. 

Twisting and Winding. The method of twisting the yarn and 
winding it on the bobbin is illustrated by Fig. 144. S is the spindle, 
R the ring, T the traveler, and B the bobbin. Y represents the 
yarn being delivered by the front rolls, and L is the ring rail. 



250 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



229 




251 



230 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




Fig. 144. Diagram Showing Relation 
of Bobbin, Ring, and Traveler. 



Fig. 145 represents a spindle for ring frames, W is the whirl 
which is fixed to the spindle, and A is the part upon which the bob- 
bin rests. A pin, whose purpose is to drive the bobbin, is inserted 

into the solid part A. 
The bobbin being 
driven by the spindle 
puts in the twist. 

_ The bobbins do 

j' R^ ^ not traverse up and 

? </ down as on the cap 

and flyer frames for 
in this case the ring 
rail traverses up and 
down, guiding the 
yarn on the bobbins 
as desired. 

The rings (Fig, 
146) are made of steel and turned perfectly true, for 
any unevenness is a serious defect. They are fixed 
to the ring rail by a clamp (shown in Fig. 147) which 
holds them firmly in position. 

The top rim of the ring is provided with a flange 
(C, Fig. 146), around which the traveler runs. The 
traveler is a small, semicircular piece of tempered 
steel, with each end somewhat flattened so that it will 
not be pulled off the ring by the tension of the yarn. 
Fig. 148 shows an enlarged section of rings and trav- 
elers, and illustrates how the traveler is held on the 
ring by the flange. 

Principle of the Traveler. The traveler receives dfeforRing^ 
its motion by being dragged around the ring by the Frame. 
yarn. As the yarn passes from the front rolls to the bobbin it is 

bent at right angles 






B 



at the point when it 
passes through the 
Fig. 146. Elevation of Ring. \x2.^^\^x. Therefore 

all the twist is introduced between the traveler and the front roll. 
In fact, the traveler performs a double duty being the medium 



253 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



231 



through which the bobbin gives twist to the yarn, and winding the 
yarn on the bobbin. 

The size and weight of the traveler must be adapted to the size 
of yarn being spun. This is necessary so that the revolutions of 
the traveler shall fall 
behind the revolu- 
tions of the bobbin 
enough to maintain 
a tension upon the 
yarn sufficient to 
wind the same length 
that is delivered by 
the front roll, less a 
small amount due to 
contraction on ac- 
count of the twist. 

The smaller the 
diameter of the bob- 
bin the more revolu- 
tions are necessary 
to wind the same 
length, and as the 
speed of the bobbin is constant it is evident that the tension on the 
yarn must relax and allow the traveler to fall behind the bobbin and 
cause more yarn to be wound. This may be understood by study- 
ing the two diagrams in Fig. 149. In these illustrations R is the 

ring, T the traveler, S the spindle, F the 
full bobbin, and E the empty bobbin. 

The yarn is represented as passing 
through the traveler by the line Y. With 
the full bobbin (Diagram B) the pull of 
the yarn is nearly parallel with the ring 
and the traveler is rotated with com- 
parative ease, but with the empty bob- 
bin (Dagram A) the pull of the yarn ap- 
proaches a radial line and is not as well suited to rotate the traveler. 
We will assume that the empty bobbin is three-quarters of an 
inch in diameter (2.35 inches circumference) and that the full bob- 




Fig. 147. Plan of Clamp for Fastening Ring 
in Ring Rail. 





Fig. 148. Enlarged Section of 
Rings and Travelers. 



253 



232 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



bin is one and three-quarters inches in diameter (5.49 inches cir- 
cumference). If the traveler is held stationary and the empty bob- 
bin given one revolution there will be wound 2.35 inches of yarn, 
while with the full bobbin one revolution will wind 5.49 inches of 
yarn. 

If the rotations of the traveler were not retarded, it would travel 
around the ring a distance equal to 2.35 inches for an empty bobbin 
and 5.49 inches for a full bobbin, and as each rotation of the trav- 
eler gives one twist to the yarn a considerable difference in the twist 





Fig. U9. Diagram Showing Difference in Tension. 

per inch will be produced, but as the traveler falls behind the bob- 
bin only enough to cause the yarn to be wound, the difference in the 
twist is not appreciable. 

If the bobbin makes one hundred revolutions and in the same 
time the front rolls deliver ten inches of yarn the twist may be called 
ten turns per inch. The empty bobbin will have to make 4.25 
revolutions. 

10 



2.35 



= 4.25 



The traveler will make 95.75 revolutions, or the speed of the 
bobbin less the number of revolutions necessary to wind the yarn. 

100 - 4.25 = 95.75 

At each rotation of the traveler the yarn receives one turn of 
twist, so the actual twist is 9.57 turns per inch. 

95.75 -- 10 = 9.57 



254 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 233 

W^ith the full bobbin 1.84 revolutions are necessary to wind the 
ten inches of yarn delivered by the front roll. 

10 

The traveler will then make 98.16 rotations. 
100-1.84=98.16 

This gives 9.81 turns of twist for each inch of yarn. 
98.16 -- 10 = 9.81 

Thus the difference in twist per inch between a full bobbin one 
and three-fourths inches in diameter and an empty bobbin three- 
fourths of an inch in diameter is the difference between 9.81 and 
9.57, or .24 of one turn. 

The spindle and bobbin cannot vary in speed as the bobbin is 
driven by the pin on the spindle. It is the duty of the traveler to 
wind the yarn on the bobbin and to regulate the drag. The heavier 
the traveler used the more drag is required to pull it around and 
consequently the harder will the yarn be wound on the bobbin. 
This makes it possible to spin successfully a wide range of counts. 

WOOLEN SPINNING 

Woolen yarn is spun on a machine termed the mule, which 
draws out the roving, twists the yarn, and winds it on bobbins. The 
modern mule is a complicated machine, but the principles are the 
same as in the old spinning wheel where the thread was drawn out 
by hand. The present self-acting mule may draw out and twist as 
many as four hundred threads at one time. 

Before reacliing the spinning room the wool passes through a 
set of cards and is made into the form of roving as explained in 
Part 11. This roving is wound on jack spools and carried to the 
mule. 

The success of the spinning operation depends to a large extent 
upon the care and thoroughness exercised in the carding room, for 
the more even the roving received from the card, the stronger and 
smoother the yarn made from it. Uneven roving will make uneven, 
twitty yarn, and this defect cannot be corrected in spinning. The 
spinning process does, however, have a tendency to even the inequal- 
ities, as it were, for the twist sets in the thin places as the yarn is 



255 



234 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




256 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



235 



being drawn, which causes the thicker untwisted places to be drawn 
out to more nearly the correct size. It is, however, a very poor 
policy to depend upon the spinning room to make up for the defi- 




ciencies of the card room, and is the cause of a large amount of bad 
yarn and waste. 

Operation. When a jack spool is placed in a mule and the 
machine started the action is briefly as follows : A quantity of roving 
is unwound (depending upon the size of the yarn into which it is 
to be spun) from the spool, drawn and twisted to the proper size, and 



357 



236 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



wound on bobbins to facilitate handling in subsequent operations. 

The machine which performs the work consists primarily of two 
parts, each one of which is dependent upon the other for the ultimate 
accomplishment of the purpose of the machine. These parts are 
known as the head stock and the carriage. 

Head Stock. The head stock receives power from the main 
shaft, and controls, either directly or indirectly, all the motions of the 




Fig. i52. Front View of Head Motion, Johnson & Bassett Mule. 

carriage and deUvery rolls. The illustrations, Figs. 151, 152 and 
153, show three views of this part of the machine. 

Carriage. The carriage, which travels in and out automatically, 
is controlled by the head stock, and draws, twists, and winds the yarn 
on bobbins placed on the spindles. To obtain a better idea of the 
carriage careful reference should be made to Fig. 150, which gives 
a good idea of the machine in general. 

The illustration. Fig. 154, is a line drawing of the jack spool 
dra wing-off rolls, spindle, carriage, etc., and shows their relation 
to one another. The jack spool M, on which the roving is wound, 
is placed on the drum L, the ends being passed through the guide K 
and between the drawing-off rolls G and H, and made fast to the 



258 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



237 



bobbin C on the spindle S. The two bottom delivery rolls are geared 
to the drum L being driven in turn from the head stock. 

When the delivery rolls are revolved, the drum L is turned, 
unwinding roving from the spool M. The top delivery roll is made 
in sections covering two ends and is driven by friction from the bottom 
rolls. 

The spindle S, which is slightly inclined toward the delivery 
rolls, is supported by a step board at the base B^ and by a collar 




Fig, 153. Side View of Head, Davis & Furber Mule. 

board B^. A short distance above B^ a small grooved pulley B, 
known as the whirl, is placed. Passing around this whirl and around 
cylinder A is an endless band which transmits power from the cylinder 
to the spindle. Each spindle on the machine may have a separate 
band, or a number of spindles may be driven by a single band passing 
alternately around the spindle and drum, then around a pair of 
binders back to the starting point. The spindles and drum cylinder 



259 



238 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



are carried by a frame carriage Y mounted on a casting X which in 
turn is supported by the wheels E which run on the track F. The 
tracks are to facilitate the movement of the carriage, their number 
depending upon the length of the machine. 

At the commencement of a draw the carriage is in, the top of the 
spindles being just below and within approximately one inch of the 
delivery rolls G and H. Simultaneously with the delivery of roving 
from the rolls, the carriage commences to draw away from the head, 
and the spindles commence to revolve. 

The speed of the carriage and the surface speed of the rolls are 
about the same till the required amount of roving has been given off 




Fig. 154. Diagram Showing End View of Carriage, Delivery Rolls, etc. 

then the rolls stop, the carriage continuing till the end of the draw 
is reached ; a distance of about seventy-two inches from the dra wing- 
off rolls. During the latter part of the operation the roving is drawn 
and twisted, while during the first part, till the delivery rolls were 
stopped, the roving was simply being twisted. The amount of 
roving given off depends upon the stock and the size of yarn to be 
spun. 

The reason for inclining the spindle towards the delivery rolls is 
to allow the yarn to slip over the end of the bobbin at each revolution 
of the spindle during the twisting. The revolving of the spindle 
causes the yarn to assume a position at right angles to the bobbin. 
The top of the bobbin being below the delivery rolls, the yarn rises 
in a series of spirals as the spindles revolve, slipping over the end of 
the bobbin at each turn. 



260 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 239 

Fig. 155 illustrates this point. The yarn tends to rise along 
line X-Y till the point X should be reached when it would tend to 
wind around the spindle. The point of the spindle being below 
the delivery rolls G and H the yarn slips off instead of winding up; 
a twist being put into the yarn, for every revolution of the spindle. 
This continues till the required number of turns has been put in the 
yarn, at wliich time the spindles are stopped. 

Some machines are fitted with an attachment whereby the 
speed of the cyHnder A is increased as soon as the carriage reaches 




Fig. 155. Diagram Showing Angle of Spindle. 

the end of the stretch. This is done for the purpose of putting in 
the twist in as short a time as possible. 

Fallers. Attached to the outside of the carriage, a few inches 
from the center of the bobbins, are two shafts or rods d and d^. Fas- 
tened to these rods are the fallers D and D^, through the ends of which 
pass heavy steel wires. The longer or tension jailer is so placed that 
the wire is always below the yarn, while the shorter or winding jailer 
carries the wire above the yarn. 

As soon as the required amount of twist has been put in the yarn, 
the spindles are reversed for a few turns. With the reversal of the 
spindles, the winding faller descends and the tension faller ascends 
for the purpose of keeping the proper strain on the yarn. 

Following the change of the fallers, the drawing in of the carriage 
commences, the spindles revolving so as to wind up the slack yarn. 
As the carriage moves in, faller D ascends, allowing the yarn to 
wind on the bobbins slowly and in close spirals. In the meantime 



261 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



the tension faller descends, 'ts function being to keep the yarn under 
the same tension at all times. When the carriage strikes in, the 
fallers change, assuming their former position. 

This cycle of movements, consisting of the delivery of the roving, 
drawing and twisting incidental to the running out of the carriage, 
backing-off and winding up of the yarn as the carriage runs in, 
completes what is known as a draw. 

So far the machine has been dealt with in a general way, no 
attempt being made to show how and when the various changes are 
made. The actions of the various parts will now be taken up in 
addition to their relation to the action of the whole machine. Close 
attention must be paid in order to carry in mind the functions of the 
various parts as well as the order in which they occur. During a 
draw a certain part may perform several different functions which 
will tend to make the machine harder to understand. 

Details of Head Stock. In dealing with the parts in detail, the 
head stock first demands our attention, as this is the part that receives 
the power and is the source of all the changes. The illustration, 
Fig. 156, is a sectional view of the principal parts. 

The main shaft F carries four pulleys, F^, F^, F^, and ¥*i two 
grooved pulleys F^ and F^; two gears F^ and F^; and a bevel gear 
F". F^ is a loose pulley running on a sleeve which in turn is loose 
on the shaft. F^ is connected by the sleeve mentioned above to the 
gear F* which controls the backing-off and drawing-in motions. 
F^ and F^ are fastened to the shaft and control the drawing out of the 
carriage. F* and the grooved pulley F^ are attached and run loosely 
on the shaft. They control the accellerated speed. The grooved 
pulley F^ is fast to the shaft and, when the belt is on F^, drives the 
spindles during the delivery and drawing of the roving; i. e., till 
the carriage has reached the end of the stretch. F^ is a bevel gear 
attached to the shaft and drives the twist motion. 

To Operate Carriage. To start the mule, the carriage being 
in and the belt on the loose pulley, the shipper handle is thrown 
backward, forcing the belt on F^, or drawing-out pulley, which being 
fast to the shaft drives F**, F^ and F^. On a stud and meshing with 
F^ is a gear F^*'. Fast to this gear is a gear F" which meshes with a 
gear F^^ which is loose on the drawing-out shaft G. 

Fast to F^^ is part of a clutch F^^, which is made to operate with 



262 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



241 



the part F". F^* slides on a key set into the shaft G. Through the 
above pulleys, gears, and clutch, power is transmitted to the shaft 
G which carries the drawing-out scroll G^ When the shaft revolves 
the rope G^ (Fig. 157) is wound up on one side of the scroll G^ and 
the rope G^ is unwound from the other side. 

G^ is attached to the carriage at G^, passing around the binder 
pulley G^ and then to the scroll. G^ is a tension band whose purpose 




Fig. 156. Sectional View of Head Stock. 

is to keep the carriage running out steadily, and prevent it from over- 
running the drawing out rope G^. The revolving of the scroll G^ 
serves two purposes; it winds up the rope G^, thus drawing out the 
carriage, while the unwinding of G^ keeps the carriage steady. 

To ensure the best results in drawing and spinning, the carriage 
must leave the head at a speed equal to that of the delivery rolls. 
When these stop, the speed of the carriage must slacken and the com- 
bined twisting and drawing takes place. The variable speed thus 
required is obtained by means of the draft scroll G^ (Figs. 156 and 
157.) 

When the shaft G starts to revolve, the carriage is given the 



2@3 



242 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




necessary speed to keep the roving, as it is delivered from the rolls, 
at the required tension, because the rope is at first wound around the 
largest diameter of the scroll. But as the carriage is .drawn out, the 

rope commences to wind down 
to the smaller part of the spiral, 
necessitating the slowing down 
of the carriage. The slowing 
down takes place as soon as the 
delivery rolls stop, and aids in 
the drawing of the roving. 

Squaring Bands. The 
power to draw out the carriage 
^ being applied to the middle, the 
g- ends would have a tendency to 
g drag if some device were not 
~^^ used to prevent this. 
$ Attached to the underside, 

q and running from end to end of 
S the carriage, is a shaft, having a 
o drum or flanged pulley attached 
« at the middle and ends. Around 
S these drums but wound in the 
§ opposite direction are two ropes, 
^- their ends being made fast to 
~! castings screwed to the floor, one 
^ under the roller beam and the 
other just beyond the extreme 
stretch of the carriage. As the 
carriage is moved, one rOpe 
winds up and the other unwinds, 
and as all the pulleys are fast to 
the same shaft, they turn at 
equal speeds, thus drawing all 
parts of the carriage in or out 
with equal speed. It is neces- 
sary to keep the ropes tight to ensure the best results. This shaft 
is known as the squaring shaft, and the ropes are known as squar- 
ing bands. 




364 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



243 



Simultaneously with the shipping of the belt to the third pulley 
F^, which causes the carriage to be drawn out, the delivery rolls and 
roving are set in motion, receiving their power from gear F^^ of the 




train that drives the drawing out scroll. (Fig. 160.) 

While the carriage is being drawn out, the spindles are twisting 
the roving, being driven from the cylinder C^ which in turn is driven 



265 



244 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



by a rope known as a rim band (I, Fig. 158) which passes around the 
grooved pulleys F^ and F*^ on the shaft F. 

Pulley F^, or drawing-out pulley, and grooved pulley F^ are fast 
to the shaft, therefore, pulley F^, in addition to drawing out the 
carriage, turns the spindles during the same period. While the belt 
is on the third pulley, grooved pulley F^ is 
simply a follower as it is loose on the shaft. 

Accelerated Speed. As soon as the car- 
riage reaches the end of the stretch the belt 
is forced to the fourth or accelerated speed 
pulley F* wliich is fast to the grooved pulley 
F^. When this occurs F*^ ceases to drive the 
spindles, becoming a follower, while the larger 
grooved pulley drives the rim band, and in 
consequence of its increased size the cylinder 
C* and the spindles are driven faster. By this 
method a larj^r number of turns of twist are 
put in, in a sriorter time. 

The band passes over pulley P on the 
cylinder shaft, around binder I^, over 1^, and 
under binder I^, then around binder I^, which 
is fast to the floor, and pulley H\ which is 
fast on the drawing-out shaft. Next it passes 
around the mOeys F^ and W, back over F^ and 
W, then over the binder I^ and back to the 
carriage again, {^oing around the pulleys the 
second time, except that it passes over grooved 
pulley F" twice instead of over F^j finally coming out over binder I^ 
(See Fig. 159.) This is known as a double rim band. Pulley I^ 
is fast to the shaft which carries the cylinder C*, and the spindles 
revolve with the cylinder as they are connected by band C^. 

The rim band and spindles always go in the same direction 
except during the backing off, at which time they are reversed, owing 
to the fact that the pulley H^, on the drawing-in shaft, drives the 
band in the opposite direction. This is done to unwind some of the 
yarn in order to allow the fallers to change preparatory to winding 
the yarn on the bobbin as the carriage runs in. 

Easing=Up Motion. Yarn takes-wp or contracts in length 




FiR. 159. 



266 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



245 



while being twisted, and in order not to overstrain it the carriage 
is drawn in slightly towards the head while the belt is on the fourth 
or accelerated speed pulley. This easing-up motion, as it is called, 
is accomplished as follows: When the carriage reaches the end of 
the draw, a pin drops into a slot in a rod, which is connected, by 
means of rods and levers, to the rack L^ Fig. 160. Simultaneously 
with the dropping of the pin into the slot the belt is shipped from 
the third, a drawing-out pulley, to the fourth or accelerated speed 
pulley, which is free on the shaft. 

The band I passes over the grooved pulley F^ which is fast to 
the fourth pulley. It also passes over the grooved pulley F", which 




Fig. 160. 

is fast to the shaft F, thus causing it to turn, and drives through F*, 
F^", F" and F^^. On the shaft L to which F^^ is fastened is a worm 
which meshes with a gear U on the end of the upright shaft U. 
Sliding on a pin on the lower end of the shaft U is one half of a clutch 
L^, which meshes with the clutch L*, which is fast to the gear L^, 
meshing with rack L". 

Attached to L^ is a rod U which is fastened to a lever one end of 
which is attached to the floor. Fastened to the free end of the lever 
is a rod which is slotted at the end and into which the pin, mentioned 
above, drops, forming the connecting link between carriage and rod. 



207 



246 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



The reason for attaching the rods to a lever is to allow a greater or 
less amount of easing-up. 

As soon as the belt is shipped to the fourth pulley; i. c, when the 




carriage reaches the end of the draw, the carriage is drawn in slowly 

by receiving power through the gears and levers just mentioned. 

Backing=Off. When sufficient twist has been put in, the yarn 

is ready to be wound on the bobbin, and the motion known as hacking- 



268 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 247 

ojf takes place. This consists of unwinding a few coils of yarn, 
and is accomplished by reversing the spindles. In order to do this, 
the rim band must be reversed, this being done in the following 
manner : 

The belt is sliipped to the second or drawing-in pulley F^ at the 
same time forcing the friction clutch H^, which up to this time has been 
in a neutral position, into clutch H^ (Fig. 156.) Pulley F^ and 
gear F^ are connected by a sleeve and the power is transmitted through 
F^ to W, W, H^ sleeve H^ friction disc H^ to pulley H^ which 
causes the band to run in the opposite direction, reversing the spin- 
dles. While the spindles are being reversed, the winding faller 
descends to guide the yarn to the bobbin and the counter faller 
ascends to keep the tension on the yarn. 

Drawing=In. After the backing-off has taken place, the car- 
riage is ready to run in. The friction clutch is thrown out of con- 
tact and the clutch H^ (Fig. 156) is forced into contact with the 
clutch ff fast to the drawing-in shaft H. The belt is still on the 
second or drawing-in pulley F^, driving through the train of gears 
previously mentioned. The easing-up motion is stopped when the 
backing-off takes place. 

As soon as clutch H^ meshes with H^, the drawing-in shaft com- 
mences to revolve. Fast to both ends of the shaft are scrolls H^ and 
H^°, the ropes being connected directly to the carriage and are the 
ones that draw it in. Fast to this shaft is another scroll, the rope 
passing from it around a binder in front of the carriage and then back 
to the carriage. This rope is known as a check hand and is used to 
prevent' the carriage ^from overrunning as it is being drawn in. 

The check band is wound around the scroll in the opposite 
direction to that in which the drawing-in ropes are wound, conse- 
quently the winding up of the drawing-in ropes unwinds the tension 
band. 

The drawing-in scrolls are made large in the middle and small 
at both ends, the object being to start the carriage without undue 
strain, increase its velocity, and then gradually ease it down till it 
strikes in, thus obtaining the maximum speed with the minimum of 
power and strain. While the carriage is running in, the spindles 
are revolving, winding the yarn on the bobbin. This motion is con- 
trolled by a mechanism known as a quadrant^ which gradually reduces 



269 



248 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



the number of revolutions of the spindles in proportion to their ever 
increasing size. 

Quadrant. At each stretch there are seventy-two inches of yarn 
to be wound on the bobbin. A large number of revolutions is neces- 
sary to wind up this yarn when the bobbins are empty, than when 
they are nearly full. This variation in speed being necessary, the 
quadrant is used, as the rim band has a constant speed. 

Referring to Fig. 162 it will be seen that one end of the quadrant 
chain M^ is fastened to the floor by M^ then passes around the grooved 
pulley M^ and the drum M*. A plan of the drum and winding 
clutch is given at the upper right hand of the illustration. 

The drum M* is geared by means of M^ to the gear M" which 
in turn meshes with M*^ which is loose on the shaft. Fast to the gear 
M^^ is one-half of a clutch M^ and sliding on a key in the shaft is a 
clutch M^". When the carriage is drawn in the clutch M^° is in con- 
tact with M**, and the unwind of the chain from the drum M^ causes 
the spindles to revolve and consequently to wind up the yarn. 

Referring to Fig. 162 it will be seen that the chain N passes over 
the sprocket W, around W and back to the carriage, and that any 
movement of the carriage will cause N^ to revolve. Fast to N^ is a 
gear wliich meshes with the teeth N* on the inside of the flange N^ 
Thus as the carriage runs in, the quadrant M is rotated on its axis, 
being turned by gear N^ attached to W. The drawing out of the 
carriage reverses the action, causing the quadrant to turn back. 

It will be noticed that the pulley M^ is attached to a block made 
to run up and down on a differential screw by means of a pin working 
in the thread. When the mule is started up with an empty set of 
bobbins, the pulley M^is wound to the bottom of the screw M^ When 
in this position, being very near the axis of the quadrant, the maximum 
amount of chain will be wound from the drum M* causing the spindles 
to revolve the greatest number "of times. This is due to the fact that 
the length of chain unwound will be nearly equal to the stretch; i. e., 
seventy-two inches. 

If pulley M^ were wound to the top of the screw, it will be readily 
seen that less chain will be unwound when the quadrant turns for- 
ward than when the pulley was at the bottom of the screw. This 
decreased amount of chain being unwound, riieans less revolutions 



J«570 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



249 




27 J 



250 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



mvl 



of the spindles. This shows how the number of revohitions may be 
varied. 

The method of turning the screw, thereby raising M^, is as 
follows: Attached to the bottom of M^ (see Fig. 163) is a bevel gear 
which meshes with another bevel gear attached to gear O^, which 

receives its power from pulley O^ through 

W gears O^ and O^ Passing around pulley 

)^ O*^ is a band O^, which passes under the 

carriage and around pulley O^, then back 
to the starting point, forming an endless 
band which passes just below casting O^". 
The elbow lever O" is so attached to 
the carriage, that unless the weighted 
end is held up, the other end will force 
the rope C^ against the casting 0^° 
where it will be held firmly as the car- 
riage runs in, thus causing the pulley O^ 
to revolve, which turns M^ thus raising 
Ml 

The position of M^ is regulated by 

the tension on the yarn. As the bobbin 

increases in size, the tension on the yarn 

has a tendency to increase, ' due to the 

^^' ' spindles turning the same number of 

revolutions while the bobbin was increasing in size. 'This increased 

strain on the yarn holds the counter faller down. 

Hanging on a chain, one end of which is fast to a lever O^^ on 
the winding faller shaft, the other end being fastened to a lever O^^ 
on the counter faller, is a rod O^^, the other end of which is fast to 
the elbow lever O". The tightening of the yarn keeps the faller 
down, allowing the weighted end of the elbow lever to drop, thus 
forcing the rope O^ against the casting 0-°. As the carriage is drawn 
in, the rope being held tight turns the pulley O^ thus raising M^, and 
thereby causing less chain to be unwound from the drum. This 
causes the spindles to make fewer revolutions and relieves the tension. 
After the base of the bobbin has been formed, the same number 
of turns are required to wind up the yarn spun at each stretch, so the 
spinner usually loops the chain O" over one of the levers so that 




g7g 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPE^NING 



251 



there is no chance for the elbow lever to come in contact with the 
band O^. This device is used only during the formation of the base 
of the bobbin, and during this time M^ has been wound to the top 
of the screw M^ 

The reason for having a differential thread on the screw is as 
follows: One layer of yarn on an empty bobbin causes a greater 
increase in proportion to the diameter of the spindle, than a layer on 
a nearly completed bobbin, therefore, the number of revolutions 
must vary in proportion to the ever increasing diameter of the base. 
, For this reason the pulley M^ is raised ever decreasing distances as 
the carriage moves in, controlled by the differential pitch of the screw, 
thus unwinding less chain at each draw. 

After the base of the bobbin has been formed and M^ has been 
wound to the top of the screw M^ the quadrant controls the speed and 
number of revolutions of the spindles 
independent of the screw. As the 
yarn is wound on an ever rising cone, 
with no change of diameter, no change 
in the number of revolutions is nec- 
essary. 

When the mule backs-off the 
yarn is unwound to the top of the 
cone of yarn, the winding faller de- 
scends to this point, the quadrant be- 
ing clear back. When the carriage 
commences to run in, the quadrant 
revolves toward the retreating carriage, the winding faller mean- 
. while descending till it has reached the bottom of the cone. When 
this point is reached, the quadrant has reached the perpendicular. 

As the yarn is now to be wound on the bottom of the cone, the 
spirals gradually rising towards the top, the speed of the spindles 
must steadily increase as the diameter decreases, in order to take up 
the yarn. This variation is controlled by the throw of the quadrant, 
which is about forty-five degrees. 

In order to show how this throw affects the speed of the spindles 
the diagram. Fig. 164, has been prepared. Suppose on the outward 
throw, the pulley M^ assumed position A^. During the first half of 
the throw to A, the angular speed being constant, A^, A^, A*, etc., 




Fig. 164. 



g7§ 



252 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




Fig. 165. 



being equal arcs of the circle, it will be easily seen that the lateral 
distances corresponding to A^, A^, A*, etc., on line D-C are constantly 
increasing. In other words as the quadrant approaches the per- 
pendicular, the amount of chain from 
the drum is constantly decreasing for 
corresponding arcs, the direction of 
the quadrant more nearly approaching 
that of the carriage. 

As the quadrant turns forward, 
the speed of the spindles is reversed, 
constantly increasing as the carriage 
moves in. Fig. 165 illustrates this 
point. Fig. 166 shows the actual 
throw of the quadrant. 

The speed of the spindles while 
running in is also varied by the speed of the carriage, which starts 
in slowly, increasing and then decreasing its speed till it strikes in. 
Counter Faller. The counter faller takes care of the slack 
yarn and its position indicates whether the spindles are making the 
correct number of revolutions. If the counter faller is too liigh it 
shows that there is too much slack yarn, and to overcome this, the 
quadrant is wound down a little, thereby increasing the number of 
revolutions of the spindles. If the faller is too low the quadrant 
should be wound up, otherwise the yarn may be strained or broken. 
The tension faller should be a trifle above the top of the bobbin 
just before the carriage strikes in and the fallers change. 

The quadrant chain is rewound on the drum in the following 
manner: Referring to Fig. 162 it will be seen that a rope M^ is fast to 
and wound around the drum M* in a direction opposite to that of the 
quadrant chain. The unwinding of the quadrant chain winds up 
the rope M^, which passes under a pulley fast to the floor and then over 
another pulley on the head. It also has a heavy weight attached. 
When the carriage strikes in, the clutches M^ and M^" are thrown out 
of contact, and as the carriage runs out the rope is unwound, thereby 
winding up the chain. The clutch is free at all times except during 
the running in of the carriage. This being the case the weight keeps 
the chain wound up at all times excepting when the chain is being 
unwound. 



874 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 253 

Building Device. The method of winding the yam on the 
bobbins having been explained, the next thing to be considered is the 
device for controlling the size and shape of the bobbin. This con- 
sists primarily of a rail resting on shoes which control its height. 
Along the top of this rail runs the faller leg E^, Fig. 167, which is 
attached to the faller rods by the casting E", consecjuently any motion 
imparted to E^ will be transmitted to the faller E*. An upward 
movement to the faller leg produces an opposite movement to the 
faller. 

Builder Rail. When starting an empty set of bobbins the rail 
should be at its highest point (See Fig. 168, which is an enlarged 
view of Fig. 167), thus forcing the fallers to their lowest point; i. e., 
the bottom of the bobbin. When the 
backing off is completed, Q^ is in some 
such position as A and the winding fal- 
ler is at the top of the cone. As the 
carriage runs in, the pulley Q^ runs up 
the short incline Q}, forcing the faller 
quickly to the bottom of the cone, thus 
winding the yarn down to this point in 
coarse spirals. 

From the highest point of the short 
incline to the end of the builder rail, ^^' 

the fall is gradual, thus causing the fallers to rise slowly, and the 
yarn to be wound in close spirals to the top of the cone. This 
method of winding the yarn in coarse and jfine spirals produces a very 
firm bobbin. Just before the carriage gets clear in, the extended 
portion of the faller leg E'' comes in contact with a casting Q^^, fas- 
tened to the floor, causing the leg to slip off the point Q*, thus allowing 
the leg to drop, and forcing the fallers to their original position. 
When the mule backs-off, the leg again slides back ov^r Q"*, due to 
the fact that chain Z^ is wound down, and acting on casting Z^, turns 
shaft E^ part way over and lifts the leg which is attached. 

The method of lowering the rail so as to cause the fallers to 
gradually rise in order to form the bobbin is as follows: The two 
parts of the rail are controlled by separate shoes or inclines Q^ Q^, 
Q'', which in turn are controlled by one screw. As previously stated 
the bobbins are started with the rail at the highest point of the shoes, 



879 




254 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




and in order to cause it 
to drop the shoes must 
move in toward the head 
of the mule. 

The shoes Q** and 
Q^ are fastened together 
while Q** and Q^ are con- 
nected by the rod Q^. 
The rail Q is kept in 
contact with the shoes 
Q^ by means of a dog 
which slides in the slot 
in the casting Q^" as the 
rail drops. The small 
part of the rail Q^ is 
controlled by a separate 
shoe Q^. As the shoes 
move in the ends of the 
rail drop faster than the 
middle, till the base of 
the bobbin has been 
formed and the shoe will 
have moved so that the 
rail rests at the point A', 
Fig. 168. 

As the rail descends, 
the incline Q^ becomes 
steeper, thus forcing the 
faller to rise a greater 
distance at each stretch, 
till the base of the bob- 
bin has been formed. 
As the rail descends, it 
is thrust 'forward, due to 
the fact that the dog 
drops in the casting Q}° 
at an angle. The effect 
of this is to lengthen the incline Q}, which controls the winding 




bjO 
S 



270 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



255 



faller as it descends from the top to the bottom of the cone, conse- 
quently the longer the time it takes to go from the starting point A 
to the top of the rail, the more turns the spindle will have made and 
the greater number of spirals will have been wound on the bobbin, 
making it much firmer. 

The moving of shoe Q^ forces the casting Q"^^ against the incline 
Q", gradually raising it. As Q^ runs down the rail this constantly 
changing angle in the rail causes a slight increase in tension at this 
point, thus winding the yarn harder and making the nose of the 
bobbin firmer. 

The method employed to move the shoes is as follows : Referring 
to Fig. 167, it will be seen that the roll Q" is in such a position that 




J^m'. 



Fig. 168. Details of Builder Shoe and Rail. 



as the carriage runs out it will come in contact with lever Q^^, causing 
the sickle-shaped pair to drop, thus raising the other end and chain 
attached to it, which in turn raises the lever arm Q". (Fig.169.) 
Tliis lever is pivoted, one end supporting a pawl which meshes with a 
ratchet fastened to the other end. 

Fast to the ratchet is a gear Q^" which meshes with the gear Q^^ 
The latter is fast to the screw Q^, which moves the builder shoes. 
When the roll Q" forces down the lever Q^^ it lifts the ratchet Q^^ and 
the gear Q^^, causing the gear Q^^ to turn as the pawl locks with the 
ratchet, when it is moved in this direction. As soon as roll Q^^ 
leaves the lever, the ratchet and gear drop to their former position, 
leaving gear Q^^ at the point to wliich it was turned. The pawl 
disengages itself when the ratchet is turned in this direction. 

The rapidity with which the screw Q^ is turned depends upon the 



277 



256 



WQOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




position of the plate Q'^ which stops the ratchet and gear when they 
drop. The higher the plate, the less distance the large gear will be 
moved at each draw of the carriage, consequently the slower the rail 
will drop and the larger bobbin will be formed. 

The position of Q" also controls the fall of the rail, for the lower 
the roll the higher the ratchet will be raised, and the faster the screw 

will be turned. Also, if the roll is 
so placed that it will run over the 
lever, and force it down again as 
the carriage runs in, the rail will be 
dropped twice as fast as if the roll 
moved the lever only once. A bob- 
bin built by the roller striking the 
lever only once would be twice the 
size of a bobbin built when the roll 
forced the lever down twice at each 
stretch. 

Twist Slide. In previous re- 
marks considerable has been said 
about twist, and we will now con- 
sider one of the most important parts of the mule, known as the 
twist slide. 

When the mule is started a triangular-shaped piece of metal (PS 
Fig. 170) connected by a rod to the starting lever, is moved so that it 
allows the spring P^ to act on the lever arm and force the belt on F^ 
(Fig. 156) or drawing-out pulley. The shipper is kept in this posi- 
tion by the spring P^ holding it against the projection P^. 

A safety device known as a detent lever prevents the belt being 
shipped to the third pulley and the consequent starting out of the 
carriage unless a casting on the back of the carriage has forced in the 
detent lever P'^, allowing the catch P*' to hold it. This casting is 
controlled by a rod on the front of the carriage. This clears the 
way so that the spring P^ can act on the belt shipper, throwing the 
belt on the third pulley. 

The dropping of the twist frees the lever from the catcli and 
unless the casting on the carriage replaces it at every draw, the carriage 
will stop, due to the fact that the belt is kept on the loose pulley. 
The shipping of the belt to the third pulley causes the main shaft to 



Fig. 169. 



378 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



257 



revolve as the pulley is attached to it, thus causing the bevel gear F** 
(also shown in Fig. 156) to revolve. F'' meshes with a bevel gear on 
a short shaft at right angles to it. 

On this shaft is a gear U, which is perforated with holes in such 
a manner that pins may be set in it. The turning of the main shaft 
causes the plate to revolve, forcing a finger against pins set in another 




Fig. 170. Details of Twist Slide. 

plate, thus forcing the casting U^ to slip by casting U^, this allowing 
gear and slide to drop. 

The dropping of the twist liberates the detent lever so that the 
carriage will stop when it strikes in unless it is forced back under 
the catch P^ The dropping of the twist also brings the bolt P^ in 
contact with the projecting arm of the belt shipper, forcing the belt 
to the second or drawing-in pulley. 



270 



258 WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 

In addition to the above, the way is cleared so that the back-off 
friction may be thrown in. The twist slide is replaced by a roller 
fastened to the gear T^, which is driven from the drawing-in shaft. 
The pins in the twist gear are adjusted to give the required twist. 
The dropping of the slide liberates the gear from the worm, and a 
weight which has been wound up, forces the gear to its former position. 

So far the principal functions of the mule have been dealt with, 
and now a detailed account of the mechanisms which enable the 
various parts of the machine to perform their duties, will be taken up. 

Operation. Starting with the carriage clear in, with the belt 
on the loose pulley F^ (Fig. 156), the first thing to do is to move the 
rod, on the front of the carriage, which forces the detent lever P^ 
(Fig. 170) under the clutch P", thus clearing the way for the belt 
shipper to move. Next the starting lever is moved, forcing the cast- 
ing P^ out of contact with P and allowing the spring P^ to act on P, 
forcing the belt to the third or drawing-out pulley F^ (Fig. 156). F^, 
being fast to the shaft, drives down through the gears F^, F^", F", 
F^^, clutch F^^ and F", causing the shaft F, to which the drawing- 
out scroll G^ is attached, to revolve, winding up the rope G^, thus 
winding out or drawing out the carriage. 

Driven from F^^ (Fig. 160) is the roving motion, which causes the 
drawing-off rolls and the drums, which are driven from them, to 
revolve, thus unwinding the roving from the spools. Driven from 
the gear F^^, by means of the gear R, bevel gears R^ and R^, and the 
shaft R^, is a bevel gear R^ which meshes with another bevel gear Rs 
which is attached to one half of a clutch loose on the rear delivery 
roll. The other half of the clutch slides on a key in the shaft, and 
when the two clutches are in contact, the delivery rolls revolve. • 

The number of revolutions of the delivery rolls or the amount of 
roving given off is controlled by pins set in a gear which is so arranged 
that it may be thrown into or out of contact with a worm on the 
delivery roll. When the proper amount of roving has been given off 
the pins in the roving gear release a catch, allowing a spring to draw 
the gear out of contact with the worm and also forcing the two parts 
of the clutch out of contact. This immediately stops the delivery 
of the roving. 

When the roving gear is released, a small weight that has been 
wound up during the delivery of roving, causes the gear to return to 



880 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 259 

its former position. The roving gear is put in contact with the 
worm by the carriage as it strikes in. During the outward run of the 
carriage, the spindles are turned by means of the rim band pulley F*^ 
which is fast to the shaft. As previously stated this band drives the 
drum C* (Fig- 158) from which the spindles receive their power. 

Latch Rod. When the carriage reaches the end of the stretch 
the drawing-out clutch F^* is thrown out of gear and the easing up 
motion is thrown into gear. The carriage strikes the bunter S (Fig. 
171) which, acting through the rod S^, forces back the wedge S", 
which raises the dog S^, connected to the latch rod S^, from a slot 
in S^. The raising of this dog S^ allows a powerful spring S^ to 
draw back the slide S^ It will easily be seen from the shape of the 
casting S^ (Fig. 172) that if it were drawn back, the end of the 
drawing-out clutch lever S^ would be forced to shp into the hollow 
in the end of the casting, thus forcing the clutch out of gear, and 
stopping the carriage in its outward motion. 

At this point the belt is shipped to the fourth or accelerated speed 
pulley F* by means of a roll on the back of the gear T^ (Fig- 170), 
which acting on the lever T forces the catch P^ out of position, allowing 
the spring P^ to draw the lever against P^, thus shipping the belt to the 
fourth pulley. The striking out of the carriage also forces the easing- 
up motion into gear. 

In its normal position a projection on S* keeps the upper half of 
the easing-up clutch L^ out of gear with L"*, but as soon as S* is forced 
back the clutch drops into gear, and as it is receiving power from the 
shaft L, draws in the carriage a certain amount, depending upon the 
twist. When sufficient twist has been put into the yarn, the twist 
slide drops, causing the belt to be shipped to the second or drawing- 
in pulley. This causes the rim band to be reversed, consequently 
reversing or backing-off the spindles and causing the fallers to change. 

The falling of the twist as previously stated ships the belt to the 
second pulley and also releases the back-off lever so that the spring 
S^ (Fig. 172) draws it oack, forcing the back-off friction clutch into 
gear and thus driving the clutch in a direction opposite to that in 
which the rim band has been running. 

With the shifting of the belt to the second pulley, the grooved 
pulley ff becomes the driver of the rim band, and as it runs in the 



281 



260 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



opposite direction to that in which the band has been running, the 
spindles are reversed, unwinding the yarn. 

Fast to the drum shaft in the carriage is a ratchet T? (Fig. 173) 
which on the outward run of the carriage turns free, but as soon as 
the drum is reversed, pawl 7}, controlled by a spring engages with 
the ratchet and causes drum Y^, to which it is attached, to revolve, 
winding up the faller chain Z*. (Figs. 173 and 167.) The winding 
up of this chain draws down the segment 7} on the faller rods and 
raises the faller leg E^ till it slips over the end of the casting Q*, which 
travels on the top of the builder rail Q. 

The lifting of the leg over Q causes a spring to pull 7}^ and 7}^, 
forcing the cluch M'' and M^" into gear. This clutch controls the 




Fig. 171. Details of Latch Rod. 

winding of the yarn on the bobbin, as it allows the quadrant chain to 
turn the spindles. (See Fig. 162.) As the faller chain Z^ is wound 
down and faller leg E^ is raised, roll 7} is lifted, raising 72 and 7}, 
which are connected to it. Fast to 71" is a pin which rests in a slot 
in the easing-up rod \J (Fig. 160), which up to this time has been 
drawing in the carriage quite slowly as the twist is being put in, thus 
throwing the easing-up motion out of gear. 

Simultaneous with the lifting of this pin the latch rod is lifted 
and drawn back by a spring, thus allowing the dog S^ to drop back 
into place in the slide S*, so that a roll on gear S^, which is driven 
from the gear S* on the drawing-in shaft, may force the drawing-out 
slide and latch rod back into place. This allows the latch rod to 
catch on the casting S^^, holding both the slide and rod in position. 

The drawing-in of the latch rod brings the casting S^^ on the rod 
into contact with the lever S^^ which forces the backing-off friction 
out of contact and the drawing-in clutch into gear, causing the carriage 



282 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



261 



to be drawn in. The drawing-in clutch is thrown out of gear by the 
carriage striking against the lever Y (Fig. 161), which releases the 
backing-off lever S^S allowing the spring S'' to draw it to a neutral 
position. During the running in of the carriage, the yarn is being 
wound on the bobbins, the action being controlled by the winding 
faller, which in turn is controlled by the builder rail through the 
medium of the faller leg. The above completes a full cycle of the 
motion of a mule. 

Doffing. When the bobbins have been filled, it is necessary to 
remove them and place empty ones on the spindles. This operation 
is known as doffing, and is performed as follows: While the carriage 




Fig. 172. 

is coming out the builder rail is wound cleur up, which causes the 
fallers to go to the bottom of the bobbin when the mule backs off. 
Stop the mule at this point; then move the carriage in a little, by 
means of the shipper handle, which causes the yarn to wind around 
the bottom of the bobbin. If the yarn is slack enough lock down 
the fallers and take a few turns of yarn on the spindle below the bobbin 
by pulling on the rim band. If the yarn is too tight to allow this, 
move in the carriage a little. Now take off the bobbins, replacing them 
with empty ones. 

The quadrant chain is now wound down, the fallers unlocked, 
and a turn of yarn wound around the bobbins by pulling on the rim 
band. If the quadrant chain is not tight, pull the faller leg from its 
position on Q* which releases the' winding clutch, allowing the weight 
attached to the drum to wind up the chain. Then press down the 



283 



262 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



fallers bringing the leg back into position, forcing the winding clutch 
into gear. The mule is now ready to start. 

This is a description of only one of many methods employed in 
doffing a mule, the result being the same in all cases. 

Different kinds of stock require different methods in spinning, 
and no hard or fast rule can be given as to draft, twist, etc. As a 
general thing short stock requires more twist than long stock, for in 
the latter the long fibers cannot draw by each other when twisted to 
any extent. 

The longer the stock, the quicker the carriage must get away 
from the drawing-off rolls, because the twist sets much quicker than 
in short stock. The finer the stock, the slower the carriage must 
leave the rolls. 

If the ends break about half-way between the carriage and rolls, 
the carriage is drawing too fast; while if the roving breaks near the 




yv|i o ft tt^^^^JW^^A^^^^^H^^n 



Fig. 173. 

rolls it is taking the twist too fast, and the carriage must be drawn 
out quicker. 

It is often found expedient to change the speed of the carriage to 
some extent, without changing the flanges or wings, to accommodate 
certain kinds of stock. This is done by turning the scroll G^, Fig. 157, 
one way or the other, depending upon whether the yarn is taking the 
twist too quickly or not. 

The greater the amount of drawing-out rope wound on the large 
diameter of the scroll, the greater the distance the carriage will travel 



284 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 263 

at high speed, and the less twist will be put into the roving before it 
commences to draw. This change in the position of the scroll i? 
brought about by turning the drum G^ Fig, 173, in the desired direc- 
tion by means of the crank G^ which meshes with the gear G", which 
is fast in the drum G^. The drawing out rope G^ passes around the 
pulley G* and is attached to one side of the drum G^. The tension 
band G^ is wound on the drum in the opposite direction. Turning 
the drum in either direction winds up the rope on one side and unwinds 
it on the other, thus causing the scroll to turn. 

Mules are built in various sizes from 198 to 400 spindles and 
gauges from If to 2^ inches. The machine described by the previous 
drawings and explanations is representative of the principles of 
mule spinning, being the Davis and Furber self-acting mule. The 
machines produced by various manufacturers differ some in the 
methods employed to bring about the various changes, but the results 
are the same. 

TWISTING 

In the doubling and twisting operation as in worsted spinning 
there are flyer, cap, and ring frames. The flyer frame is used very 
little; the ring frame being the best for general use, although the cap 
frame is preferable for fine yarns on account of the high speed at 
which it may be run. The cap frame i*s also used by some in pref- 
erence to the ring frame on account of the expense of travelers on 
the latter. 

A much larger bobbin can be used on the ring twister and the 
yarn can be wound tighter, therefore a greater length of yarn can be 
wound on the ring twister bobbin than can be wound on the cap 
twister bobbin. This is an important feature to the spooling room. 

In spinning, the frames draw the yarn, twist it, and wind it on 
bobbins ; in twisting, the frames simply twist the yarn and wind it on 
bobbins, the front rolls and spindles being the essential parts of the 
machine. 

In order to avoid the large knots which would be caused by tying 
up the ends of the compound thread when one thread broke down, 
most twisting frames for doubling and twisting more than two threads 
are equipped with stop motions, which stop the delivery of yarn and 
allow the broken thread to be tied up before it passes through the 



S85 



264 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 




286 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 265 

front rolls. For fine two-ply yarns it makes little difference if both 
threads are tied up together, but in this case a stop motion saves a 
large amount of waste. 

As there are so many makes of twisters, which differ only in the 
size and shape of rolls and in the method of driving, we will select 
representative machines for explanation. 

Two=Ply Twister. The illustration Fig. 174 shows a Prince 
Smith two-ply trap twister. As will be seen there is an upright roll 
for each spindle. The bobbins of yarg to be twisted are placed in 
the creel. The ends are then passed through the small wire hooks or 
guides at the side of the rolls, wound once around the roll, passed 
down through the porcelain guide fixed to the lever or trap, and then 
through the traveler to the bobbin. 

As long as both of the threads that are being twisted continue to 
run through the guide, the trap is held down and the roll is free to 
revolve, but if one thread breaks or one bobbin runs off before the 
other the twist in the remaining thread will be quickly taken out by 
the spindle which revolves in the opposite direction to the twist 
in the single yarn. This causes the single thread to break and allows 
the trap lever to rise. 

The trap lever swings on a pivot, but the back part is a little 
heavier than the front which causes the back part to fall as soon as 
the action of the yarn, in passing from the upright roll to the traveler 
and spindle, is removed from the front part. The back part of the 
lever is provided with a catch which engages with the mechanism, 
which stops the roll and therefore stops the delivery of yarn. 

Four=Ply Twister. The illustration. Fig. 175, shows a frame 
for twisting four threads together. Each thread passes through 
a stop motion detector before it reaches the front rolls. These de- 
tectors must necessarily be very light as the yarn must support their 
weight as it passes through them. When a thread breaks the detector, 
through which it passed, drops and engages with a rocking shaft. 
The rocking shaft knocks the upright bar; which supports the top 
roll, out of position and through its connections stops the spindle. 
In this manner the delivery of yarn is stopped and the spindle ceases to 
put in twist. It is very important that the spindle should stop prompt- 
ly or extra twist will be put in the yarn that passes the front rolls 
before the delivery stops. 



387 



266 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



The value of devices for this purpose can be readily seen, for 
where three, four, or more threads are being twisted together the stop 




motion acts when one thread breaks or runs out, allowing the ends to 
be tied together without affecting the other threads. The small 
knot made in this way will scarcely be noticeable when twisted with 



»8S 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 267 

the other threads. These stop motions also effect a great saving in 
waste. 

The method of calculating the number of turns of twist per 
inch is the same as in the spinning process. The number of turns 
of twist to put into yarn either in spinning or doubling and twisting 
varies so much for yarns that are to be used for various purposes 
that it is impossible to give a table of twists for every kind of yarn. 
The following tables, however, will give a good working idea of the 
twist required by representative yarns. 

It must be remembered that in twisting two or more threads 
together the twist given on the twisting frame is in the opposite 
direction to that given the single yarn on the spinning frame. There 
are special cases where twisting is in the same direction as spinning, 
but this is done to produce a special effect. 



289 



268 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 







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Note. In the above table the representative twists for a large variety of special 
yarns are given. In the column marked "Counts" the size of the finished or compound 
yarn is given. Under the heading "Spinning" the number of turns per inch of twist 
given the threads in the spinning operation, is shown. Under the heading "Twisting" 
the number of turns per inch of twist given in the doubling and twisting operation is 
shown. 

The counts opposite the word "cord", in the first column, are for fancy cords to be 
used in upholstering, etc. 

The terms "Hard" and "Soft" mean that those yarns, with the twists given, would be 
harder or softer, respectively, than usual. Yarns of this nature are sometimes required 
for special purposes. 



290 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 



269 



WORSTED COATING YARNS 
Australian Cross Bred for Worsted Coatings 

WARP 



Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


2-26 
3-28 
3-30 


10 

10^ 

11 


9 

9% 
10 


3-32 
3-36 
2-40 


13 
13 
14 


11 
12 
14 


^-BLOOD WOOLS 


Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


2-13 
3-14 
3-16 
3-18 


7 
8 

8^2 

9 


5 
6 

7 
8 


2-20 
2-34 
2-28 
3-33 


10 
11 
13 
13 


9/2 

10 
11 
12 J 


J^-BLOOD WOOLS 


Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


3-18 
2-20 
3-36 


9 
10 
11 


8 
8 
9 


3-30 
3-36 
3-40 


12 
13 
14 


10 
13 
14 


i^-BLOOD SLUB DYED 


Counts 


Spinning 

9 
10 
U 


Twisting 


Counts 


Spinning 

12 
13 
14 


Twisting 


3-18 
3-20 
2-26 


8 
8 
9 


3-33 
2-36 
3-40 


10 
13 
14 



FILLING 



Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


2-36 
3-28 
3-30 


10 
11 


6 
6 
6 


2-33 
2-36 
3-40 


43 
13 
14 


6 

7 
8 


Ji-BLOOD WOOLS 


Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


2-12 
2-14 
2-16 

3-18 


7 

8 
9 


5 
5 
5 
5 


2-20 
2-24 
2-28 
3-33 


10 
11 
13 
13 


5 
5 
6 

7 


J^-BLOOD WOOLS 


Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


3-18 
2-20 
2-26 


9 
10 
11 


5 

5 
5 


2-30 
3-36 
3^0 


12 
13 

14 


5 

7 
8 






^-BLOOD SLUB DYED 






Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 

7 
7 
7 


Counts 


Spinning 


Twisting 


2-18 
3-20 
2-26 


9 
10 
11 


3-33 
3-36 
3-40 


12 
13 

14 


8 
8 
8 



291 




Q 

H 

W o 
M ^ 

w .3 

s ^ 

u 

Q 



FELT 



Judging by its appearance felt might readily be classed among 
woven goods; but this, it will be seen, would be a wrong classification, 
although it is termed cloth in many instances. Felt as such, however, 
displaces cloth to quite a large extent; for linings and trimmings it 
has become an indispensable article, which is largely due to its greater 
cheapness, and in the shoe and rubber trade large cjuantities are 
being consumed. The cheaper grades of gloves have felt for linings, 
and in the saddlery trade it is found to be not only a very useful but 
an almost indispensable material. 

Stock. The stock from which felt is made varies, of course, 
with the quality and nature of the product to be made; but on the 
whole felt lends itself very readily to manipulation of the stock, and 
it is safe to say that there is very little waste made in the average 
woolen mill which cannot be used for some kind of felt. Long, coarse 
wool and the finest burr waste can be successfully used, and even 
cotton enters into quite a percentage of the products of felt mills. 

The first and most important requirement for the superintendent 
of a felt mill is a thorough knowledge of the various kinds of stock, 
especially in regard to their felting properties; for while it is true that 
much stock can be and is used which does not possess felting proper- 
ties, there must be some stock used which does possess these prop- 
erties. Cotton is considered as being void of the felting capacity, 
but thousands of yards of linings and paddings are made every year 
from cotton. 

Mixing. The mixing of the various grades of stock to be used 
for the required kind of felt is of the greatest importance, and therefore 
much care has to be exercised at this point, which is practically the 
first step in the process of felt manufacture. The stock to be mixed 
is thoroughly dusted and then taken to the mixing-room, where it is 
placed in even layers. A thin layer of the longest stapled stock is 
usually placed at the bottom, and the various other kinds are then 
placed on top of this in thin layers. The man in charge of the work 



293 



2 FELT 

must see that the different qiiahties of stock used are also evenly 
distributed throughout the batch. For instance, if the batch to be 
made is 3000 pounds, and six grades of stock enter into it in the fol- 
lowing proportion: 1000 pounds of one grade, 600 pounds of a second 
grade, 450 pounds of a third grade, 375 pounds of a fourth grade, 
375 pounds of a fifth grade, and 200 pounds of a sixth grade, it can 
readily be seen that the various layers must be in proportion to the 
amount of each kind of stock. 

It is usual to make from four to five layers of each kind of stock 
to be used, and the whole amount is then divided so that each layer 
of that kind will receive an equal amount. To illustrate this a little 
more clearly, let us follow the mixing process of the imaginary batch 
mentioned above. 

Assume that each quality of stock is to be divided into five dif- 
ferent layers, which gives thirty layers for the whole batch. This 
would give 200 pounds to a layer of the first kind, 120 pounds of the 
second, 90 pounds of the third, 75 pounds each of the fourth and 
fifth, and 40 pounds of the sixth. Now, it does not matter in which 
order the stock is put down, so long as the proper amount of each 
kind is taken and the same order is observed in all the layers. 

The stock is then fed to the mixing-picker. This simple opera- 
tion should be performed very carefully for felt. The stock must be 
taken from the batch with a vertical movement in order to produce 
a good mix, for, if this is not carefully observed, the poor stock will 
not be mixed with the better grade as thoroughly as it should be. 

At this point a departure from the usual way of preparing batches 
will be noted, for no emulsion of oil is added to the stock, it being fed 
to the picker dry. While simple moisture is not harmful to the 
operations used in making felt, it would however upset calculations, 
for as such moisture would be an unknown and undeterminable 
quantity, it can be seen that no correct provision can be made for it. 
The case of oil, on the other hand, is quite different; for oil is posi- 
tively a detriment to stock intended for felts. It is impossible to get 
stock on which oil has been used into the condition necessary for the 
felting process proper, for it must be remembered that felt is not 
woven, and therefore the stock has to be prepared by what is termed 
the hardening process, in order that it may be properly handled at 
the fulling or felting process. All the stock used for felt has to be 
closely watched for the presence of oil, although if only a small quan- 



294 



FELT 3 

tity is slightly oily it may pass, if the larger amount is entirely free 
from oil. 

All the waste coming from woolen mills should be carefully 
inspected, in order to be on the safe side. In many places all such 
stock is thoroughly v/ashed before using it; but this is an added 
expense, and the price obtained for the goods does not admit of its 
being done in most instances. 

After the stock has been run through the mixing-picker, it is 
usually run through a burr-picker; not because the burring operation 
is necessary on all kinds of stock, but as there usually is a great variety 
of different grades of stock, it frequently happens that a batch is 
somewhat burry, and it is well to be on the safe side. In many places 
the stock is run twice through the same picker. 

Carding. The stock after this careful treatment is ready for 
the carding process. The carding is, next to the mixing proper, of 
the greatest importance, for in order to have an even piece of felt, the 
carding must be even. Even carding cannot be done with the several 
machines in poor condition, and especial care must be taken that both 
cylinder and workers are perfectly true and well set. It also is nec- 
essary that the clothing should be of the proper sharpness, and it 
should be prevented from becoming too full by stripping at regular 
intervals. When these things are attended to as they should be, the 
carding process will not cause much trouble. The stock, after com- 
ing from the picker room, is fed to the first breaker card. As in 
ordinary feeding, the stock should be fed as evenly as possible, and 
automatic feeds are generally used. 

When the carded stock arrives at the doffer, instead of being 
twisted into roving, as is done where a thread is to be produced, it is 
deposited upon a drum, which, revolving at the back of the dofBng 
cylinder, takes the stock along and winds it. When the lap on the 
drum is thick enough, it is torn off and laid aside in sheets to await 
the next step in the process. The speed of the drum exerts quite an 
influence upon the product, for, if it runs too fast, the stock is stretched 
too much, while if it runs too slowly, the stock will be lumpy. 

On the lower grades of felt the second breaker card is dispensed 
with in most mills, although the product could be much improved 
by its use. However, this is a matter of judgment, and much of the 
better grade of goods is made without the use of the second breaker. 



J995 



FELT 




FELT 5 

When the stock has been run through the breakers it is ready 
for the finisher card, which, in the language of the felting industry is 
termed the "former". As the name implies, this card is used for the 
purpose of forming the carded stock into the proper shape for the 
piece of felt which is to be made, and for this reason the width of 
the machine has to be somewhat greater than the width of the goods, 
for the fulling, necessary to give the piece the required strength, 
cannot be performed without more or less shrinkage. Usually the 
former cards are from one hundred to one hundred six inches wide, 
and the feeding apron is supplied with guide boards, which can be 
set so that any width, within the limits of the machine, can be made. 
This card is provided also with a drum at the back under the doffer 
cylinder. The drum is used to operate an endless canvas apron, 
on which the stock is deposited. 

At this stage a piece of felt is generally made forty yards long, 
therefore this is the length of the canvas apron. After passing around 
the drum, the apron passes over a series of rolls set in a frame, and 
as high as the room will allow. This is done for the purpose of 
economizing space. At the rear end of this stand of rolls another 
drum is placed, over which the apron also passes on its return journey. 
This drum is used to roll the stock on sticks when the carding process 
is completed. The diagram. Fig. 1, shows how the apron travels 
and also how the stock is wound upon the sticks. 

When the guide boards have been properly set for the width 
wanted, the stock from the breaker card, which is lying ready in 
sheets, is carefully weighed and then fed evenly to the machine. The 
endless apron referred to above is connected with the machine, being 
virtually a part of it, so that when the machine is in motion, the apron 
also is in motion. When the stock comes from the doffer, it is depos- 
ited upon the apron and carried along with it, traveling around until 
all the stock required for the piece has been carded and deposited upon 
the apron. As soon as this is done, the stock is torn across on the 
drum at the rear and wound around a stick, commonly termed a 
batstick. This completes the carding process and the stock thus 
formed is termed a bat. 

When the stock is ready to be made into bats and is weighed for 
ihe piece, allowance is made for the sides, which are generally thinner 



297 



6 FELT 

than the body, and have to be trimmed off so that the goods may be of 
an even thickness. 

The method of procedure at this stage depends greatly upon the 
nature of the goods being made. On common weight goods the 
whole piece may be made in one bat, while on heavy goods two or 
more bats are sometimes made and placed together afterwards to 
get the required weight. All grades which are to weigh one pound 
to the yard, or less, are usually made in one bat; while those goods 
which are to weigh from two to ten or twelve pounds per yard are made 
in bats weighing from forty to sixty pounds, as the case may be. 

When the bats have been made they are taken to the trimming 
table and are trimmed to width, and as many bats as are required for 
the piece are placed on top of each other. When trimmed the bats 
are again weighed, and they are then ready for the next step, which 
is termed "hardening". 

Hardening. When the stock has been carded into bats it is 
loose and can be handled only with greatest care. For this reason 
the hardening process is employed, to give the bat a consistency where 
it can be handled readily in subsequent processes. Hardening felt 
is a very simple process, but it requires quite a lot of time. The 
machine itself consists of a heavy iron framework supporting a strong 
cast-iron platen, which is thirty-two inches wide by one hundred 
ten inches long. A top platen of the same width, but two or three 
inches shorter, is over the first one, so that the actual width which the 
machine will handle is about one hundred six inches. 

The accompanying illustration. Fig. 2, shows one style of hard- 
ener, and it will be observed that the machine is very solidly built. 
On the left side of the illustration the mechanism for its operation may 
be seen. 

Hardening felt is an adaptation of the principles of fulling, which 
is employed here to give to felt its first stability. As is well known, 
the elements required for fulling are pressure, moisture, a,nd heat, and 
all three are made use of at this process. The illustration gives only 
the mechanical part of the hardening operation, and the explanation 
is thus not complete. On each end of the hardener is placed a bench- 
like construction which corresponds with the bottom platen. On 
one end of the hardener this bench is about eight yards long, while on 
the other end it is about four yards long. Between the longer bench 



298 




^1 



X =3 

H 
H 

< 



K 



FELT 




299 



§ FELT 

and the hardener is placed a steam box, which is covered with burlap 
to cause the steam to pass through evenly. At the outside of each 
platen a wooden frame, to which canvas is secured, is placed. The 
canvas is drawn tightly over both surfaces. 

At the end of the benches is placed a shaft operated by a crank, 
and on this is wound another canvas apron from fifty to fifty-two yards 
long. The tops of the benches are covered with planks one foot wide, 
and there is a space between each plank to admit of a roll being placed 
between them. The canvas apron is first rolled up smoothly on the 
end of the eight yard bench, and the end is then drawn over the bench 
and steam box and passed between the platens. It is then brought 
to the shaft at the end of the other bench and secured. It will be 
seen that the rolls make it much easier to draw the apron along. 

The bat, ready for hardening, is then placed upon this apron 
over the steam box, with the end just touching the edge of the bottom 
platen, and is unrolled toward the end of the bench. Care must be 
taken that no wrinkles are in either the apron or the bat. On top 
of the bat is placed an apron of burlap which has previously been 
smoothly rolled on a bat stick and this also is unrolled towards the 
end of the bench, thus covering the stock completely. After moisten- 
ing this burlap apron, another bat is placed on top of it in the same 
manner as the first, and also another apron. This is continued until 
there are as many pieces as it is intended to treat. 

The steam is then turned on in the steam box and the pieces 
saturated, after which the whole is drawn along by means of the shaft 
and crank at the end of the short bench, until the steamed part of 
the goods is between the platens. The top platen is then let down 
on the goods and the machine started. Now it will be seen by a glance 
at the illustration that a mechanism is provided to impart a recipro- 
cating motion to the top platen. We have now the three elements 
of fulHng in action; the steam supplying moisture and heat, and the 
top platen supplying the pressure. 

The duration of the vibration is automatically controlled by 
means of a mechanism with gears and a wormshaft. When this 
mechanism has been set it will shift the belt from the tight to the loose 
pulley, thus stopping the vibration, and it will also lift the top platen. 
The steaming process of the next width has been going on during this 
time, and by drawing the apron ahead thirty-two inches, anothtr 



300 



FELT 




301 



10 FELT 

width is placed between the platens. The machine is again started, 
this being repeated until the end is reached. Both the bats and the 
burlap aprons are again rolled up on bat sticks, after passing through 
the hardener. The vibrations of the top platen referred to are very 
short, not exceeding one-half inch from one extreme to the other. 

In Fig. 3 is shown another style of hardener, which is often termed 
a double hardener, because the machine is constructed in such a man- 
ner that the vibrations are imparted to both top and bottom platens. 
The vibratory motion thus being doubled, the machine will produce 
the same results as the single hardener in one-half the time. In all 
other respects the machines are alike. 

Four pieces are usually treated at the hardener at one time by 
placing one bat on top of another as described, but this depends 
entirely upon the weight of the goods. For instance, on glove linings 
which weigh from ten to twelve ounces per yard, six pieces is the com- 
mon practice; while on heavy laundry and saddlery felts, which 
weigh from ten to twelve pounds to the yard, one piece is all that can 
be treated at a time, and even then it is necessary to repeat the opera- 
tion. 

On some of the light weight goods also, it is often necessary to 
give two hardenings in order that they may be better handled at the 
fulling process. This is done as follows : To commence, three pieces 
are hardened, then placed on top of three fresh pieces and passed 
through the machine again. The first three pieces are then taken 
off the machine, and three more fresh pieces put through under the 
second three; and so on. 

After the hardening process is completed the pieces are taken to 
the fulling room, unrolled, and drawn over a perch for examination. 
Every imperfection in carding will show, and the attention of the 
carders must be called to any unevenness in order that it may. be reme- 
died. After a careful examination the goods are ready for soaping, 
preparatory to putting them into the fulling machine.. 

The soaping operation is preferably performed with a machine 
similar to the one shown in Fig. 4. It is a very simple contrivance, 
consisting of two squeeze rolls marked A, the lower one of which is set 
in the tank C which contains the soap. On each side are guide rolls, 
a single one marked B on the side where the goods enter; and a set 
of two rolls also marked B on the other side, to take care of the goods 



302 



FELT 



11 



as they leave the squeeze rolls. The machine is made wide enough 
to admit of the pieces passing through open width, which is preferable 
to having them in the rope shape, common to ordinary soaping 
machines. 

The soap used on felts is generally used very warm, as it is thus 
possible to use a better bodied soap, and also to provide the heat 
necessary in the fulling process. The strength of the soap need not 




Fig. 4. Elevation of Soaping Machine. 

be very great as there is not much, if any, oil or grease to loosen, but 
on account of alkali being a powerful aid in fulHng, quite an amount 
may be used. These things do not go by rule, being subject to the 
judgment of the one who has charge of the fulling. In some instances 
it is found profitable to have the soap as near neutral as possible, and 
then add alkali, dissolved in hot water, near the end of the process. 

Fulling. The machines used for fulling are of the old-fashioned 
kind, that is, the crank type of mill, for it is impossible to use rotary 



303 



12 FELT 

mills on felts. There are two reasons why rotary mills are not 
adapted for this work: first, because the goods are not solid enough 
to stand the strain, and consequently would pull apart; and second, 
because the pieces, being in rope form, would felt together in that 
shape. As there are no provisions, on this style of fulling mill, to 
regulate the shrinkage in width and length, the desired end must be 
attained in another way. 

The illustration. Fig. 5, shows a crank type fulling mill, and it 
will be seen that one or more pieces can be placed at either end. The 
sides are on hinges and can be let down to make it easier to remove the 
goods. The letters A, A, A, A, indicate the four sides of the mill 
which are made of 4-inch yellow pine. The top frame B, B, B, B, 
supports the shaft E to which the hammers C, C, are connected at 
D, D. The levers H connect the hammers to the crank shaft F 
which is driven by a belt on the pulley G. When the shaft revolves 
a reciprocating motion is imparted to the hammers. 

When it is desired to full the goods up in length, they are 
placed in the machine so that the pressure exerted by the crank will 
be lengthwise, therefore the pieces are folded into the machine at 
full width. If, however, they are to be shrunk in width, they are 
placed in the machine from the side. When goods shrink in length, 
they should shrink more or less in width also; therefore it requires 
close attention on the part of the fuller to bring them out right. 

After the goods have been placed in the machine and have run 
about ten minutes, or sometimes less, they must be carefully examined 
to see if they felt together. If there is any indication of felting, they 
must be taken out at once, and all wrinkles which have begun to felt 
together must be carefully pulled apart. The edges are generally 
the worst for this fault, and often cause much trouble and hard work 
to keep them smooth and open. The better the quality of the stock 
used the more trouble of this kind will be present, and it often requires 
from four to six men to operate one of these machines. It is not 
uncommon to find from thirty to forty men working in a fulling room 
with five or six fulling machines. 

As the fulling operation nears completion, greater attention is 
required, for the goods should be taken from the machine and opened 
out more often. They are also carefully measured, both as to width 
and length, and if the width comes up faster than it should, the goods 



304 



FELT 



13 



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305 



14 FELT 

have to be pulled apart again. This makes the Work of the fulling 
room very hard, but there is no other way to get the desired results. 
There are goods which require additional alkali to hasten the fulling, 
but the same precautions as to taking them from the machine and 
opening out must be observed. When the pieces are finally taken 
from the machine and have been opened and measured and found 
right, they are ready for the washer. 

Washing. The washing machines do not differ from ordinary 
washers, except that more room is given the goods. In a common 
eight-string washer only four pieces are treated at a time. This iriakes 
it possible to have the guide rings and throat plates, through which 
the goods have to pass, much larger than on woven goods. 

After the goods are run into the washer and the ends sewed 
together, they are given a generous supply of warm water and run 
about fifteen minutes, after which the gates are opened and the lather 
rinsed off with warm water, followed by cold water. If the goods are 
to be fancy colors, they must be rinsed very thoroughly in order to 
remove all the soap, while if they are gray or white, a common washing 
and rinsing will answer. In washing felts it is often much the same 
as on woven goods, for some finishers think that goods cannot be 
washed clean unless soap is added in the washer. While there may 
be rare cases where it is advisable to use additional soap at the v/ashing 
process, such cases are rare, and as a general rule it may be accepted 
as a foolish waste of good material. In addition to this, it will make 
the washing process slower, for the more soap in the goods, the 
longer time is required to remove it. 

From the washer the goods are sent either to the dye house or to 
the extractor to be extracted before drying, according to the nature 
of the goods. 

Drying. The drying process is the most particular operation in 
finishing felt goods, for the defects in other operations must be cor- 
rected. With even the greatest care in fuUing, the pieces will not 
shrink evenly, some being long and narrow and others being shrunk 
too much in length and not enough in width. It is known how much 
stock there is in the piece, for in this respect all pieces of one style are 
supposed to weigh alike; the loss sustained in the various processes 
is also known ; so that if the goods are to weigh a certain amount per 
yard when finished, it is an easy matter to figure how many yards 



306 



FELT 



15 



long the piece ought to be when finished. Therefore every piece that 
comes to the dryer is measured, and if it is short of the required length, 
it must be stretched in length sufficiently so that the piece will be right 
when it is dry. 




So it will be seen that aside from the actual work of drying the 
pieces, much judgment is required to have uniform and satisfactory 
work result. 

After-processes vary with the quality of the goods. A common 
padding or white cotton glove lining is usually passed through the 



307 



16 FELT 

press and then rolled up, measured, etc. These goods are given a 
bath of starch after the washing is completed, which makes them feel 
more substantial than they really are. In the case of all cotton linings 
this starch bath is a necessity, for without it, it would be difficult to 
get the desired article. Such goods as these require very little labor 
in the finishing room, but hat felts cause much more work. 

There are two kinds of hat felt, the smooth and the rough. The 
smooth hat felt is taken from the washer to the extractor and partly 
extracted, that is, more moisture is left in the goods than would be 
done if they were intended to be dried. From the extractor the pieces 
are taken to the napper and both sides thoroughly napped. They 
are then sent to the dye house to be colored. When they return, they 
are thoroughly extracted and dried, after which they are again taken 
to the napper and receive one run on each side. The sandpapering 
machine follows, each side being given one or more runs to smooth 
the face, and the goods are ready for shearing. Fig. G shows a felt 
shearing machine. The goods are sheared down so that the face as 
well as the back will be perfectly smooth, after which they pass to be 
pressed and the usual final work. 

On rough hat felts, as a rule, the wet napping is omitted and they 
are napped after coming from the dryer. This class of felt requires 
the use of mohair, and as this is an expensive article, it is customary 
to have the middle of good filling stock and a layer of mohair on each 
side. After the fulling the mohair is held tightly by the body felt, 
for it has very little of the felting property itself. This fact must be 
remembered when the goods are napped, or the nap will be thin and 
straggling. 

For the purpose of napping the ordinary mohair hat felt, a 
machine resembling a double cylinder brushing machine is used, only 
the brushes are lacking and the cylinders are covered with fancy card 
clothing. On low grade mohair hat felts the rear cylinder is often 
replaced by a brush cylinder, thus leaving only one napping cylinder. 
Most mohair hat felts are measured and rolled up immediately after 
napping, but on the finer grades, where it is an object to bring out the 
luster of the mohair, the wet napping process is employed, and after 
drying they are again lightly napped and sent to the press for a good 
hard pressing. 

Shoe felts are usually of low grade but are felted as solid as possi- 



308 




FIFTY CELL DRYER, WITH HOUSING REMOVED, FOR DRYING CLOTH 

Vacuum Process Co. 



FELT 17 

ble. These pass from the washer to the dye house to be colored, 
usually black. They are then dried and thoroughly sandpapered. 
Shearing follows, for they also have to be as smooth as possible. They 
are then pressed hard, and are ready for the final work of measuring, 
etc. 

The machines used for sandpapering are usually the nappers 
referred to, but the card clothing is taken off and the cylinders covered 
with sandpaper. The processes in the finishing room do not differ 
materially from those employed in other mills, for the goods are in 
most respects treated like cloth. Some difference is noted when 
handling heavy laundry felts, for such goods cannot be handled in 
lengths over ten yards; neither can they be doubled, therefore they 
are rolled up full width and sent to the market. After the drying 
process is completed they are at once measured and packed. 

Felts are made for almost every imaginable purpose, but in the 
foregoing the chief points in handling felt have been given, and on the 
whole there is very little departure from the methods explained. 

PUNCHED OR NEEDLE FELT 

Another class of felt merits mention; namely, the so-called 
Punched or Needle Felt. It is chiefly used for the cheaper grades of 
stable blankets, and has excellent wearing qualities. 

The stock used for this class of goods must be of good felting 
quality and should not be of too long staple. It is not desired to have 
much nap on the blankets, for the more nap there is on them, the 
sooner the wool stock will wear off, but if a good felting short-stapled 
stock is used, and if the pieces have been well felted in the fulling 
process, a good serviceable article will be the result. 

The carding process is practically the same as before described, 
and as soon as the stock has been properly rolled on the bat stick it 
is taken to the punching machine, an illustration of which is shown 
in Fig. 7. 

The body of the goods consists of a good quahty burlap, and the 
wool stock is deposited on each side of this, so that when done, the 
burlap is entirely hidden from sight. The punching machine is used 
to make the wool adhere to the burlap until it is properly felted. It 
will be seen that the mechanism is extremely simple, consisting 
chiefly of a series of rolls for moving the burlap and stock, and the 



311 



18 



FELT 




312 



FELT 19 

punching mechanism proper. This latter part of the machine con- 
sists of the bed A and the head block D. The bed is rigid, but the 
head block is set into jaws on each. side, to which, by means of the 
lever G, an up-and-down motion is imparted. 

Into the head block D is fitted a board E, which is removable, 
and into which are set several rows of a peculiar kind of needle (shown 
in Fig. 8). As will be seen, these needles are supplied with barbs 
near the point which is intended to punch the stock into 
the burlap. They are set into the board very carefully 
and firmly, for in passing downward they pass between 
one-quarter inch steel rods F, set one-quarter inch apart. 
These rods are firmly placed one-half inch above the bed 
A, while the burlap with the carded wool stock passes 
over them ; that is, between the rods and the head block 
D. It is necessary that these rods also be placed very 
carefully, for in the case of any deviation, the needles will 
come in contact with them and thus lose much of their 
efficiency. The needles are set in rows which are one- 
half inch apart and there is one-half inch space between 
the needles. 

The rolls B and C move the goods and are driven by a 
chain from the delivery roll so that their movement may 
be even and steady. A piece of burlap is fed into the ma- 
chine at H, the piece being laid on the floor and taken up 
by the machine as it is needed. The bat of carded stock 
is placed at I, the end being passed under the roll K and pu^cMng 
placed on top of the burlap, and carried along with it. Needle. 
A leader is fastened to the end of the burlap and this is taken to C, 
usually passing over C and between C and C^. From there it passes 
into the scray L. 

The piece of burlap moves about one-quarter inch to each down- 
ward stroke of the head block D, and as there are five or six rows of 
needles^ the stock is pretty thoroughly punched through it. When 
the bat of carded stock is run out, another is placed in position and 
the process continues, but when the end of the first forty yards (which 
is the length of the first bat) reaches the scray, it is cut off and returned 
to the front of the machine to await its turn for the next run. 

As soon as the end of the second piece is reached, the first is 



313 



20 FELT 

attached to its end, but in such a manner that the side which has been 
punched is on the underside. Another bat of carded stock is placed 
in position and the machine is again started. The burlap now 
receives a coating of wool stock on the other side. When the first 
end of this piece gets as far as the rolls C and CS it is separated from 
the other piece and wound around a stick which is placed in the slots, 
M M. 

When the punching operation is completed the pieces are ready 
for the fulling. In the fulling room the pieces are first given a thor- 
ough soaping. It is desired to have the stock felted as well as it is 
possible to felt it, and as there is no danger of too much shrinkage, 
the soap for this kind of fabric can be made very strong in point of 
alkali. Of course, there is no grease to loosen which would require 
the presence of alkali in the soap to any extent, but on account of its 
being a great aid to felting it should be liberally used. The cost of 
alkali is much less than the cost of soap, and it has a tendency to make 
the body of the soap heavier, so that in this case the amount of hard 
soap to be used can be considerably reduced, thus keeping the cost 
for soap very low. 

A soaping machine should be used on all felts, but it is a deplor- 
able fact that tliis machine is found only in a few places. Without 
the aid of a soaping machine, the goods will have to be soaped in the 
old way by spreading them on the floor and applying the soap by 
means of a sprinkling can. The waste of soap thus entailed would 
soon pay for the best machine of this kind ever made, but when it is 
considered that almost any mechanic can construct a machine which 
will fill the need in every respect, it is surprising that so many still hold 
to the old way. 

When the pieces have been properly soaped they may be placed 
in the fulling machine. In this instance also, the crank mills are 
preferable. The shrinkage will be small so that no particular atten- 
tion is necessary in putting the pieces in the mill, as is the case on 
regular felt goods. However, if the stock has the felting property 
it should have, it is necessary to watch the pieces closely, and remove 
them from the machine frequently for an opening and general over- 
hauling, so that no wrinkles may felt into them. Even though the 
goods are of the cheapest kind, they should be perfect. 

The fulling proper should take about two hours and at the end 



314 



FELT 21 

of this time the goods may be taken from the machine, well opened, 
and inspected. 

The washing process is not very elaborate, as the pieces contain 
very little grease or other foreign matter which needs to be removed, 
but unless they are well rinsed they are apt to feel stiff at first. Plenty 
of warm water at the washer for these, as well as all other goods, is 
much to be desired. This does not mean that they cannot be washed 
properly without the aid of warm water, for unless the supply of warm 
water is plentiful it is as well to rinse entirely with cold water, bearing 
in mind, however, to let them rinse one-quarter or one-half hour 
longer than would be required with warm water. 

From the washer the goods go at once to the dye house to be 
colored, usually a dark yellow. They are then ready for drying, if 
medium goods. 

When a somewhat better quality of felt is made, it is given a 
heavy brushing with plenty of water. This has a tendency to lay all 
the loose fibers in one direction, but does not produce what may be 
termed a nap. When treated thus, the finished article has a much 
smoother and better appearance; but after a day's use, one would be 
unable to tell the better from the cheaper grade. 

After drying the pieces they are taken to the press and receive a 
hard pressing, after which they are at once sent to the making-up 
room, for in most places the goods leave the mill in the shape of the 
finished blanket. 



315 



INDEX 



The page numbers of this volume loill be found at bottom of the 
pages; the numbers at the top refer only to the section. 





Page 




Page 


A 




Carrier rolls 


238 


Accelerated speed 


266 


Carrying comb 


168 


Alpaca 


16, 19 


Cashmere goat 


19 


Angora wool 


IS 


Cheviot 


14 


Apperly feed 


138 


China camel's-hair 


21 


Apron condenser 


137 


China carpet 


18 


Australian wools 


15 


China fillings 


17 


Automatic feeding 


113 


Circle cleaning 


183 


Automatic feeds 


43 


Circles for combing 


182 


B 




Coarse wools 


200 




Combing wool 


IS, 164 


Back draft, to find 


156 


Condenser 


135 


Backing-off 


268 


apron 


137 


Backwashing 


156 


Conductors 


178 


Balling head 


190 


Cone drawing 


213 


Braid 


16 


bobbin lead 


220 


British wools 


12, 15 


differential motion 


214 


Builder rail 


275 


flyer lead 


220 


Building device 


275 


operation 


213 


Biu- cyUnder 


120 


Cone duster 


50 


Bur guard 


120 


Cordo^■a 


16 


Burring 


84, 115 










Cots wold sheep 


13 


C 




Counter faller 


274 






Cross breds 


16 


Camel's-hair 


21 






Can gill boxes 


203 


D 




Cap spinning frame 


246 


Dabbing brushes 


176 


Carbonizing machinery, arrangement of 41 


Detent lever 


278 


Carbonizing train 


43 


Doflfer 


123 


Card clothing 


93 


Doffer comb 


123 


Card waste 


28 


Doffing 


108, 283 


Carding, theory of 


92 


Domestic wools 


15 


Carding felt stock 


295 


bright wools 


15 


Carding wool 


83 


fleeces 


15 


Cards, stripping 


140 


territory wools 


16 


Carriage 


258 


Donskoi 


18 


to operate 


262 


Dorset ' 


14 


A^oie. — For page numbers see foot 


of pages. 







317 



II 



INDEX 



Draft of gill boxes 
Drafts 
Drawing-in 
Drawing-off rolls 
Dry carbonization 
Dryer capacity 
Drying 

felt 

wools 
Drying machinery, arrangement of 
Dusting 
Dusting machinery, arrangement of 



146 



Easing-up motion 
Extract 



E 



P 



Page 

205 

, 245 

269 

ISO 

30 

75 

161 

306 

68 

41 

50 

41 



266 
29 



Fallers 261 

Feed rolls 118 
Felt 293-315 

Finisher card 128 

Finishing gilling 187 

First breaker card 117 

First clip wool 27 

Fleeces 15 

Flocks 28 

Flume washer 59 

Fluted rolls 152 

Flyer spinning frame 234 

Flyers 208 

Four-ply twister 287 

Framework of Noble comb 184 

French drawing 221 

double meche 223 

rubbing motion 222 

single meche 223 

French sheep 1 6 

Front draft, to find 1 55 
Front rolls 
FuUing felt 

G 

Gearing of Noble comb 

German wool 

Goat 

Grinding 110, 

Guanaco 

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages. 



154 
303 



185 
62 
IS 

142 
21 



H 

Hair producing animals 
Hampshire downs 
Hampton sheep 
Hardening felt stock 
Head stock 

details of 
Heating 
High feed 

Hungarian washed wool 
Hydro-extractor 

I 

Imperfect roving 



Kempy wool 
Khorrassan Autumns 



La Chamois 
Latch rod 
Leicester sheep 
Levantine carpet wools 
Lincoln sheep 
Lister comb 
Long-wooled sheep 

Cotswold 

Hampton 

Leicester 

Lincoln 

Eomney Marsh 
Low feed 



M 



ilain cylinder 

Measuring device 

Medium wools 

ilerino fleece 

Mixing 

Mixing felt stock 

ilohair 

IMohair hat felt 

Montevideo 

Multiple apron dryer 

Mungo 

/ 

Needle felt 
Nip comb 



Page 

11 

14 

14 

298 

258 

262 

108 

45 

63 

68 



143 



25 

18 



16 
281 
14 
17 
13 
164 
13 
13 
14 
14 
13 
14 
49 



121 

192 

199 

62 

87 

293 

18 

308 

16 

74 

29 

311 
167 



SIS 



INDEX 



III 



Noble comb 
framework 
gearing of 

Noil 



Oiling 

One apron di-yer 
Open drawing 
Oxford downs 



Parallel-Rake wool washing machine 

Potash soap, recipe for 

Preparing wool 

Principle of traveler 

Prine Smith & Sons' latest set of draAvin: 

machinery for line wool 
Punched or needle felt 



Q 



Quadrant 



Rakeless washer 

Batches 

Ring spinning frame 

Rmg waste 

Romney Marsh sheep 

Rough hat felts 

Russian camel's-hair 

S 
Saxony wool 
Scotch carpet wool 
Scoiu-ing machine, early 
Scouring machinery, arrangement of 
Second breaker card 
Second clips 
Setting a card 
Shoddy 
Shoe felts 
Short-wooled sheep 

Cheviot 

Dorset 

Hampshire downs 

Oxford downs 

Slu-opshire 
Shrinkage of wool 
Note. — For page numbers sec foot of pages 



Page 




Page 


171 


Slu-opshire sheep 


14 


184 


Skin wools 


18 


185 


Soap testing 


65 


27 


Spanish Merino '' 


-^ 




Spinning 


233 




Square duster 


53 


85, 163 


Squaring bauds 


'264 


69 


Steam chest 


181 


196 


Stock 




l-t 


felt 


293 




mixing 


293 


54 


Stripping the cards 


140 


64 


T 




145 


Tables 




252 


card clothing 


100 


ng 


circles for combing crossbred wool 


183 


207 


Davis & Fm-ber breast and two liclccr- 




311 


in card for coarse wools 


106 




drawing machines for coarse wools 


200 




drawing machines for fine yarns 


197 


270 


drawing machines for medium wool 


199 




fallers, particulars of 


151 


• 59 


finisher card 


132 


212 


first breaker card 


118 


250 


long wool preparing, backwash, and 




28 


fuiishing gil! boxes 


147 


14 


output of preparing boxes 


157 


308 


relative efficiency of working points 




21 


of worsted card 


101 




second breaker card 


127 




speeds of fine worsted card 


97 


15 


speeds of woolen card 


102 


18 


wool sliriukages 


80 


55 


wools, flue and medium 


163 


41 


worsted card 


101 


123 


yarns, two to six-ply 


290 


27 


yarns, worsted coating 


291 


106 


Take-up 


242 


28 


Teasing 


83 


308 


Territory wools 


16 


14 


Testing for water 


195 


14 


Thibet goat 


19 


14 


Top testing 


193 


14 


Torrance balling machine and creel 


123 


14 


Total draft, to find 


156 


14 


Trans Caspiaus 


18 


77 


Traveler, principle of 


252 



319 



IV 



INDEX 



Tumbler 

Twist 

Twist slide 

Twisting 

Twisting and winding 

Two-ply twister 



W 



120 
212 
278 
249, 285 
239, 250 
287 



Washed Syrian 18 

Washing felt 306 

Water tests . 67 

White Bokhara IS 

White Turkistans 18 

Wipe roll 120 

Wool cleansing 41 
Note. — For page numhers see foot of pages. 



Page 

Wool degreasing 58 

Wool and fur, difference between 27 

Wool and hair fiber 21 

Wool pioducing animals 11 

Wool scouring 60 

machinery for 54 

Wool sorting 31 

Wool substitutes 27 

Wool wastes 27 

Woolen carding 117 

Woolen spinning 255 
Woolen and worsted spinning 11-291 

Worsted carding 90 

Worsted drawing 196 

Worsted spinning 233 



320 



\U 



I 



